•^if  t  of 
Mrs.    Leonora  B,   Lucas 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/fareasternimpresOOhatciala 


FAR   EASTERN    IMPRESSIONS 


FAR    EASTERN 
IMPRESSIONS 


BY 


ERNEST   F.  G.  HATCH,  M.P. 


JAPAN-KOREA-CHINA 


WITH     THREE    MAPS    AND    EIGHTY-EIGHT 
ILLUSTRATIONS 


CHICAGO : 

A.    C.    McCLURG    &    CO. 

LONDON  :     HUTCHINSON    &    CO. 
1905 


COPYKIGHTZD    AND    PRINTED    IN    GrEAT    BrITAIN 


\ 


JDS 

m 


PREFATORY  NOTE 


^       1    VURING  a  tour  in  Japan,  Korea,  and  China, 

;;^  -Lx  made  some  three  years  ago,  the  author  was 
at  pains  to  collect  and  note  down  many  facts  and 
opinions  bearing  on  the  varying  phases  of  the  Far 
Eastern  problem,  and  particularly  upon  its  com- 
mercial    aspects.      The    outbreak    of    the    Russo- 

^  Japanese  War  has  suggested  to  him  that  these 
"  impressions  "  of  a  business  man,  who  made  a  point 
of  seeking  and  obtaining  information  from  every 
authoritative  source  available  to  him,  might  have  an 

^*^    interest   at  the  present  juncture,  if  they  were  cor- 
V    rected  and  brought  up  to  date  by  later  knowledge. 

v^    He  has  accordingly  cast  his  experiences  into  narra- 
te   tive   form,  and  now   offers  his  little  work   to   the 

\\^  public  with  the  expression  of  a  hope  that  it  will  be 

^    understood    that   it    assumes    to    be    nothing   more 

^Y^Jthan  its  title  implies. 

In  the  compilation  of  the  work   the  author   has 

T 

456895 


yi  Prefatory  Note 

been  greatly  assisted  by  gentlemen  of  wide  know- 
ledge and  experience  in  Far  Eastern  affairs.  He 
is  particularly  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  Glass,  C.I.E., 
M.Inst.C.E.  ;  Mr.  Burkell,  Secretary  of  the  China 
League  ;  and  Mr.  Arthur  L.  Pearse,  C.E.,  who 
have  supplied  him  with  facts  of  considerable  interest 
and  importance  bearing  on  the  topics  treated. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Japan — Change  in  the  East — Japan  becomes  a  Great  Power — 
Her  Bitter  Resentment  against  Russia — Preparations  for 
a  Revanche — Extraordinary  Development  of  Japanese 
Trade — Japanese  and  Russian  Policy  contrasted         .        .       I 

CHAPTER   II 

Japan — First  Impressions — Yokohama — The  Japanese  Army — 
Contrasts  of  Japanese  Life — National  Characteristics — 
Jealousy  of  Foreigners — Talk  with  Sir  Ernest  Satow 
— Japanese  Industries — Political  Life — Japanese  Progress 
and  what  it  implies — Attitude  towards  Great  Britain  .        .     14 

CHAPTER   III 

The  Korean  Treaty  Ports — Seoul — Korean  Characteristics — 
Officialdom — Imperial  Caprice 41 

CHAPTER  IV 

Korean  Aristocracy — Religion — Native  Superstition — Mission- 
ary Effort — Political  History  of  Korea — An  Apple  of 
Discord — Japanese  Influence 66 

CHAPTER  V 

Korean  Trade — Railway  Development — Openings  for  Commerce 
— New  Industries — Korean  Currency — Telegraphs — British 

Shipping 80 

▼ii 


viii  Contents 

CHAPTER  VI 

PAGE 

Korean  Mining — Native  Methods — Foreign  Mining  Concessions 

— Japanese  Commercial  Policy 97 

CHAPTER  Vn 

Notes  of  a  Journey  into  the  Interior — Horses  a  Government 
Monopoly — Korean  Houses — Native  Hospitality — Curiosity 
of  the  Koreans — Ping  Yang  and  Hung  Ju — Kimshi — 
Poverty  of  the  Country 108 

CHAPTER  VIII 

China — The  Integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire — Russian 
Aggression  and  British  Alarm — Kang  Yii  Wee,  the 
Chinese  Reformer — His  Solution  of  the  Far  Eastern 
Problem — Interview  with  Li  Hung  Chang — Sir  Robert 
Hart's  Views 122 

CHAPTER   IX 

British  Alarm  at  Russian  Aggression — Expert  Views — The 
Northern  Railway — Official  Corruption — British  Attitude — 
"  Intelligent  Anticipation  of  Events  before  they  occur  "       .138 

CHAPTER   X 

Impressions  of  Pekin — Filth  and  Squalor  of  the  City — Chinese 
Industry  and  Thrift — Effect  of  Railways-  on  Chinese 
Attitude  towards  Reform — Industrial  China — Cotton  Mills 
at  Wuchang — Wages  of  Chinese  Workmen        .  .150 

CHAPTER  XI 

Struggle  for  Concessions — Political  Significance  of  Foreign 
Projects — History  of  the  Northern  Railway  Concession — 
Other  British  Concessions — The  Pekin  Syndicate — Its 
Vast  Importance  described  by  Li  Hung  Chang — Mr. 
Glass's  Expedition .161 


Contents  ix 


CHAPTER   XII 

PAGE 

Foreign  Railway  Concessions — French  and  Russian  Projects — 
A  Great  American  Enterprise — German  Lines — Details  of 
Concessions 182 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Significance  of  Foreign  Railway  Enterprise— Russian  and 
French  Projects — German  Schemes — American  Interest  in 
Railway  Development — British  Concessions — Future  Link- 
ing Up  of  the  Indian  Railways  with  the  British  Chinese 
Lines i9Jf 


CHAPTER   XIV 

The  Far  Eastern  Sick  Man — Striking  Views  of  an  Anglo- 
Chinese  Official  a  Half  Century  ago — Proposed  Triple 
Alliance  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  America — Anglo- 
Chinese  Opinions  To-day — Dangers  of  Disruption,  Com- 
mercial and  Political — Possibilities  of  Reform — Proposed 
Extension  of  the  Duties  of  the  Chinese  Maritime  Customs  .  204. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Anglo-Chinese  Views  of  the  Russian  Occupation  of  Manchuria 
— Suggested  Lines  of  a  Compromise — An  Agreement  of 
the  Powers  Essential  to  check  Russian  Aggression — An 
Alliance  with  the  United  States — Is  it  Practicable  ? — A 
Joint  Arrangement  Inevitable  ultimately^  Beneficial 
Results  of  such  a  Combination — Reorganisation  of  our 
Foreign  Office  Necessary 221 


CHAPTER  XVI  {Conclusion) 

The  Problems  of  the  War — Effect  of  Japan's  Successes  on  the 
Asiatic  Mind — Japanese  Intervention  in  China  and  its 
Danger — The  Japanisation  of  China  must  be  resisted — 
Importance  of  bringing  the  War  to  a  Close  at  the  Earliest 
Period — A  Conference  of  the  Powers  Desirable  after 
Peace  is  concluded — Concluding  Observations    .        .        .  235 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Japanese  Soldiers 

Chinese  Soldiers 

Yokohama :  the  Principal  Street 

Yokohama :  a  Street  Scene 

Yokohama  :  a  View  of  the  Harbour 

Tokio  :  a  Street  Scene 

A  Street  Scene  at  Nikko :   Twelve 

Stone  .... 

Japanese  ploughing     . 
Japanese  Boys  counting 
Japanese  Agriculture  :  planting  Rice 
Tokio  :  a  Native  Water-cart 
In  a  Japanese  Village 

Children       .... 
Japanese  Street  Advertising 
Kioto  :  a  Japanese  Funeral 
Osaka  :  the  Manchester  of  Japan 
Osaka  :  Cotton  Mills  . 
Osaka  :  Native  Boats  . 
Osaka  :  the  Yokohama  Canal     . 
Tokio  :  the  Main  Street 
Tokio  :  Public  Buildings     . 
Tokio  :  the  Entrance  to  the  Imperial 
Tokio :  the  Parliament  Buildings 
Kobe  :  Native  Boatmen 
Tokio :  a  Pipe-cleaner 
Fusan  :  a  Street  Stall 
Fusan  :  a  Rest  by  the  Way 
Chemulpo  :  from  the  Harbour 
Chemulpo :  a  Street  Scene 


Men  carrying  a 


a  Group  of  Women 


Palace 


and 


Facing  p.  lo 
II 

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15 
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24 

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25 

2S 
30 
30 

3J 
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36 
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37 
37 
40 
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41 
41 
44 
44 


xu 


List  of  Illustrations 


Chemulpo  :  a  Street  Scene 

Chemulpo  :  the  Grain  Market 

Seoul :  One  of  the  City  Gates 

Seoul :  Soldiers  parading    . 

A  Korean  Soldier 

Korean  Policemen 

Seoul :  a  Street  Scene 

Koreans  at  Dinner 

A  Korean  Lady  . 

A  Korean  Naval  Officer 

A  Korean  Nyang-pan  (Aristocrat)  at  Home 

Korean  Officials  . 

The  Emperor  of  Korea's  Father 

A  Group  of  Koreans    . 

A  Korean  Hawker 

Korean  Women  . 

A  Scene  in  a  Korean  Village 

Korean  Villagers , 

The  Echun  Mine,  Korea  :  Natives  cleaning  Ore 

Korean  Native  Mining  :  crushing  Ore 

A  Trip  Up-country :  the  Start  from  Seoul 

On  the  Road 

Korean  Villagers 

Korean  Children 

Native  Curiosity:    Koreans    inspecting  an  English 

Lady    . 
A  Wayside  Inn  in  Korea 
A  Village  Welcome 
Types  of  Korean  Beauty 
Chefoo  from  the  Sea  . 
Chefoo:  Coaling 
Chefoo :  the  Roadstead 
Going  down  to  Taku  . 
Taku :  the  Forts 
Taku  :  from  the  Anchorage 
Taku  :  Native  Ships  at  Anchor 
Taku :  in  the  Offing     . 
On  the  River  off  Taku 
A  Street  Scene  in  Tientsin 
A  Pontoon  Bridge,  Tientsin 
A  View  near  Tientsin,  showing  Graves 
Pekin  :  a  Native  Funeral    . 


Facing  p.  45 

II 

45 

It 

48 

II 

48 

II 

49 

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49 

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II 

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„ 

71 

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80 

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96 

1, 

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1, 

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108 

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108 

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109 

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109 

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116 

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117 

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122 

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>, 

123 

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138 

11 

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139 

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144 

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It 

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148 

List  of  Illustrations 


Xlll 


Pekiii :  a  View  from  the  Wall 

A  Scene  in  Pekin        .... 

Pekin :  a  Busy  Scene  Outside  the  Gates 

Pekin  :  a  Wedding  Procession    . 

Pekin  :  watering  the  Roads 

Pekin  :  a  Street  Scene 

The  Northern  Railway  of  China  :  a  Station  showing 

Third-class   Passengers  in  Open   Trucks,   with 

Mules  and  Baggage 

The   Northern   Railway  of  China   where  it  passes 

through  the  Great  Wall 
Tongshan  :  Railway  Works 
Shan-hai-kwan  :  Railway  Works 
The  Northern  Railway  of  China 
On  the  Great  Wall      . 
On  the  Great  Wall      . 
Coal-mining  in  Shansi  :  a  Mule  Team  with  a  Load 

of  Coal 

British  Engineers  proceeding  to  Shansi  to  inspect  the 

Coal  and   Iron   Mining  Area  embraced   in   the 

Concession  of  the  Pekin  Syndicate 
Outside  a  Chinese  Railway  Station     . 
On  the  Great  Wall  of  China  near  Shan-hai-kwan 

A  View  on  the  Great  Wall 

The  Great  Wall  near  Shan-hai-kwan  . 


Facing  p. 

149 

149 

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160 
160 

161 
161 

164 
164 

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i68 

„  '   169 

„   204 

,,   205 

,,    205 

FAR   EASTERN    IMPRESSIONS 


CHAPTER   I 

JAPAN — CHANGE  IN  THE  EAST — JAPAN  BECOMES  A  GREAT 
POWER — HER  BITTER  RESENTMENT  AGAINST  RUSSIA — 
PREPARATIONS  FOR  A  REVANCHE — EXTRAORDINARY  DE- 
VELOPMENT OF  JAPANESE  TRADE — ^JAPANESE  AND  RUSSIAN 
POLICY   CONTRASTED 

NO  one  who  has  visited  Japan  and  China  in 
recent  years  can  fail  to  have  been  struck  with 
the  fact  that  the  phrase  '*  the  unchanging  East "  is 
out  of  date,  at  least  as  far  as  that  extreme  part  of 
the  Orient  is  concerned.  Change  is  everywhere 
visible.  Japan's  progress  is  at  such  lightning  speed 
that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  pace  with  it ;  on  every 
side  are  manifest  the  influences  of  Western  thought 
and  action.  Even  the  inert  mass  of  China  has 
been  stirred  by  the  sharp  shocks  which  it  has 
received  and  is  receiving  from  without.  It  is 
stretching  its  giant  frame  and  turning  uneasily  on 


2  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

its  couch,  as  if  preparatory  to  its  awakening  from 
the  long  sleep  of  ages.  In  what  direction  the 
movement  will  go  or  how  far  it  will  be  carried 
he  would  be  a  bold  prophet  who  would  say.  But 
that  the  mantle  of  jealous  seclusion  in  which  the 
Far  East  has  from  time  immemorial  wrapped  itself 
is  in  rapid  process  of  being  torn  away,  never  again 
to  be  worn,  is  a  fairly  safe  assumption. 

Landing  in  Japan  as  I  did  about  three  years  ago, 
when  the  country  was  settling  down  after  the  war 
with  China,  I  found  myself,  as  it  were,  on  the 
flood-tide  of  the  current  of  national  progress  which 
has  since  carried  Japan  so  far,  and  is  destined,  in 
all  human  likelihood,  to  take  her  much  further. 
At  one  bound,  as  it  were,  she  had  jumped  from 
the  position  of  an  Asiatic  Power  of  the  second  rank 
into  the  company  of  the  world  Powers.  Her 
comparatively  easy  conquest  of  her  colossal  neigh- 
bour was  not  only  a  triumph  of  military  skill  and 
organisation,  but  a  revelation  of  national  strength 
and  stability  of  purpose  which  astonished,  and  in 
some  directions  disquieted,  Europe.  There  were 
critics  who,  judging  by  the  hopeless  inefficiency 
and  corruption  of  the  Chinese  official  classes  and 
the  general  disorganisation  of  its  Government, 
grudgingly  questioned  her  title  to  be  considered  a 
military  power.  But  even  these  cavillers  had 
to  admit  that  a  Power  which  could  carry  out  with 


Japan  a  Great  Power  3 

such  tenacity  of  purpose  and  thoroughness  opera- 
tions such  as  those  which  marked  the  campaign 
from  beginning  to  finish  was  no  ordinary  force. 
If  not  a  great  Power,  as  the  term  is  understood  in 
Europe,  at  least  Japan  was  head  and  shoulders 
above  any  other  country  in  the  East  in  all  that 
concerned  the  science  of  government. 

As  far  as  Japan  herself  was  concerned,  the  effect 
of  the  brilliant  successes  won  on  sea  and  land 
in  the  eventful  days  of  1895  only  seemed  to 
strengthen  the  view  entertained  by  competent  ob- 
servers that  the  country  had  won  more  than  a 
transient  advantage  over  a  huge  but  helpless  foe. 
Her  achievements  did  not  bring  in  their  train  that 
moral  intoxication  which  has  so  often  affected  a 
country  similarly  situated.  Though  there  was  a 
consciousness  of  power  born  of  the  combat,  it  was 
mingled  with  a  self-restraint  and  a  moderation  which 
were  altogether  admirable.  Even  the  stinging 
douche  administered  by  the  action  of  Russia, 
Germany,  and  France  in  depriving  Japan  in  the 
hour  of  triumph  of  the  most  substantial  fruits  of  her 
victory,  did  not  disturb  her  superb  calm.  Yielding 
to  a  force  which  she  could  not  hope  to  successfully 
oppose,  she  submitted  to  the  inevitable  with  quiet 
dignity.  No  riotings  occurred,  no  petulant  and 
abortive  protests  were  directed  to  unsympathetic 
chancellories.     Japan    merely  retired  with   clenched 


4  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

teeth  and  set  face,  registering  under  her  breath  a 
vow  that  in  her  own  time  she  would  revenge  the 
humiliation  which  had  been  cast  upon  her.  A  nation 
which  can  behave  thus  cannot  be  ranked  as  a  mere 
upstart  intruder  into  the  family  of  civilised  Powers. 
Obviously  she  is  a  child  born  in  the  purple,  capable 
of  working  out  for  herself  a  great  future  on  the 
lines  of  European  progress. 

The  feeling  of  national  confidence  engendered  by 
the  war  with  China  was  manifested  in  many  ways 
to  a  traveller  who,  like  myself,  visited  the  country 
to  study  its  institutions,  trade  and  modes  of 
life.  Foremost  was  to  be  noted  a  determination 
amongst  men  of  all  grades  and  in  all  walks  of 
life  to  build  up  a  navy  which  for  the  nation's 
purposes  should  be  beyond  all  question  adequate. 
It  was  the  revanche  of  France,  but  the  revanche 
with  a  difference.  While  across  the  Channel 
demonstrations  of  a  somewhat  excitable  patriotism 
revealed  from  time  to  time  the  fierce  fires 
burning  beneath  the  surface,  in  Japan  there  was 
no  outward  sign  of  animosity  to  flutter  diplo- 
matic dovecotes  and  provide  a  topic  for  the 
international  press.  The  Japanese  thought  and 
acted — chiefly  acted.  Enormous  sums  of  money 
were  applied  without  a  popular  murmur  to  the  one 
cherished  object.  The  substantial  indemnity  paid 
by   China   not    sufficing   for    all    purposes,    heavy 


The  Revanche  in  Japan  5 

additional  taxation  was  imposed,  and  never  a  voice 
was  seriously  raised  against  the  policy.  Indeed, 
what  popular  feeling  there  was  tended  the  other  way. 
People  grumbled  because  the  Government  did  not 
go  sufficiently  fast  for  them.  They  were  feverishly 
anxious  lest,  for  the  want  of  an  adequate  armament 
at  the  fateful  moment,  the  great  end  should  not  be 
attained. 

Nor  was  it  on  the  building  up  of  a  great 
navy  alone  that  national  hopes  were  concentrated. 
The  army,  which  had  accomplished  so  much, 
must  be  placed  in  a  position  to  achieve  more. 
It  had  successfully  crossed  swords  with  the  ancient 
hereditary  enemy,  but  a  more  formidable  foe  loomed 
in  the  near  distance,  and  if,  in  the  inevitable  en- 
counter with  this  Power,  Japan  was  to  hold  her 
own,  she  must  be  able  to  reinforce  the  strong  arm 
of  the  navy  with  powerful,  well-equipped  land  forces 
capable  of  taking  the  offensive  as  circumstances 
might  demand.  A  revised  scheme  of  mihtary 
organisation,  formidable  in  its  dimensions,  compre- 
hensive in  its  character  as  regards  equipment,  and 
designed  on  approved  European  principles  with 
modifications  to  suit  the  genius  of  the  Japanese 
people,  was  methodically  elaborated.  Every  detail 
was  carefully  worked  out  in  the  light  of  evidence 
gathered  by  experts  commissioned  to  every  great 
military    country  in    the   world,    not    omitting   our 


6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

own  Indian  Empire,  where  a  perfect  model  of  an 
Asiatic  army  formed  on  European  lines  supplied, 
we  may  assume,  much  suggestive  material  for  the 
Japanese  War  Office.  In  this  way  was  evolved 
a  splendid  fighting  machine,  in  numbers  three  times 
greater  than  the  force  with  which  the  country 
entered  upon  the  war  with  China,  and  in  efficiency 
and  equipment  immeasurably  its  superior.  Thus 
Japan  prepared  herself  for  the  future,  submitting, 
meanwhile,  to  burdens  and  deprivations  which, 
seeing  how  remote  were  the  alternate  benefits  to 
be  secured,  would  have  tried  the  patience  of  most 
other  nations. 

In  its  influence  on  trade  the  war  with  China 
marked  a  not  less  distinct  epoch  in  the  history  of 
modern  Japan.  Following  the  close  of  the  military 
operations  came  an  enormous  development  of  activity 
in  all  branches  of  commerce.  There  had  been  a 
great  advance  before  the  war,  but  afterwards,  under 
the  stimulus  of  national  ambition  engendered  by  the 
triumph  secured  for  Japanese  arms,  there  was  a 
great  extension  of  trading  enterprise  in  many 
directions. 

The  shipping  interest  especially  underwent  vast 
expansion.  Recognising  that  the  success  of  Britain 
as  a  naval  force  went  hand  in  hand  with  the 
supremacy  of  her  mercantile  marine,  the  Japanese 
strained   every    nerve    to  build  up   a   trading  fleet. 


Expansion  of  Shipping  Interest  7 

New  lines  of  steamers,  largely  manned  by  natives, 
were  put  upon  the  local  seas,  and  direct  com- 
munication with  England  by  a  splendid  line  of 
fast  boats  was  established.  Nothing  was  left  un- 
done which  would  help  to  increase  the  maritime 
power  of  the  country.  Though  regarded  somewhat 
doubtfully  at  the  outset  by  foreign  observers,  the 
enterprise  flourished  apace.  The  capacity  of  the 
Japanese  to  work  and  maintain  in  perfect  efficiency 
a  trading  fleet  was  demonstrated  not  less  strikingly 
than  had  been  their  ability  to  keep  in  commission 
a  modern  navy.  The  various  lines  were  conducted 
with  a  degree  of  punctuality  and  a  smoothness 
of  working  which  would  have  done  credit  to  a 
first-class  European  steamship  company  ;  while, 
as  travellers  in  the  Far  East,  like  myself,  can  testify, 
their  internal  economy,  whether  as  regards  cleanli- 
ness or  comfort,  left  nothing  to  be  desired. 

The  existing  war  has  naturally  put  a  period  to 
the  operations  of  several  companies  which  are 
engaged  in  the  shipping  business,  and  probably  it 
will  be  a  considerable  time,  whatever  the  result 
of  the  campaign,  before  the  services  are  re- 
established on  their  old  footing.  But  if  Japan 
emerges  successfully  from  her  troubles,  nothing 
is  more  certain  than  an  enormous  increase  of  her 
shipping  interest.  She  will,  it  may  be  anticipated, 
be  practically   supreme    in  the   local    trade   of  her 


8  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

own  coasts  and  of  those  of  Korea,  and  it  is  also 
likely  that  she  will  be  a  keen  competitor  with 
us  and  Germany  for  the  coasting  trade  of  the 
greater  part  of  China.  Her  genius  for  the  sea 
and  the  natural  capacity  of  her  rulers  may  even 
carry  her  further ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  im- 
probable that  the  flag  of  Japan  will  float  in  the 
most  distant  seas  of  both  the  new  and  the  old  world 
side  by  side  with  our  own.  Patriotism  is  a  potent 
factor  in  the  building  up  of  the  mercantile  marine, 
as  it  has  been  in  the  creation  of  a  strong  navy.  It 
may  be  relied  on  to  push  forward  all  projects  for 
extending  the  country's  trade  abroad  when  in  due 
time  affairs  permit  of  a  fresh  start  being  made. 

While  Japan  has  been  marching  forward  with 
giant  strides  herself  in  the  last  few  years,  her 
example  has  not  been  without  its  influence  on 
China.  When  I  was  in  the  Far  East  I  was  much 
impressed  by  the  proofs  which  were  constantly 
confronting  me  of  the  manner  in  which  the  well- 
educated  section  of  Chinese  were  learning  to  look 
towards  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun  for  inspiration 
in  the  arts  of  government.  Their  enormous  self- 
conceit  had  received  a  rude  shock  from  the  impact 
of  Japanese  power,  and  irresistibly,  if  reluctantly, 
they  were  training  themselves  to  look  up  to  their 
old  enemy  as  to  one  who  might  deliver  them  from 
the  thraldom  of  Europe.     Only  the  corruption  and 


Japanese  Influence  in  China  9 

disorganisation  of  the  central  Government  prevented 
the  feeling  from  having  more  definite  scope.  A 
Japanese  tutelage  in  matters  affecting  the  military- 
interests  of  the  empire  would  have  been  welcomed 
by  many,  but  such  was  the  position  of  affairs  at 
Pekin  that  an  arrangement  was  impossible  at  that 
time.  The  Boxer  rising,  with  its  fatal  train  of 
consequences,  effectually  extinguished  for  the  time 
being  the  hopes  of  those  who  were  favourable  to  an 
alliance  between  China  and  Japan ;  but  the  idea 
itself  survived,  and  as  soon  as  the  country  was 
freed  from  the  occupation  of  the  troops  of  the 
European  powers,  there  was  a  revival  of  the  old 
schemes.  How  far  they  have  been  put  into  execu- 
tion time  alone  can  reveal ;  but  it  is  morally  certain 
that  the  energetic  and  ambitious  race  which  is 
measuring  swords  with  the  Northern  Colossus  for 
the  domination  of  the  Far  Eastern  world  has  been 
exceedingly  active  in  the  concerns  of  her  great 
neighbour.  A  steady  stream  of  native  students 
from  the  Chinese  provinces  has  been  passing 
through  her  naval  and  military  schools,  learning 
something  of  the  methods  by  which  Japan  has 
raised  herself  to  her  present  high  position  amongst 
the    nations   of  the   world. 

Meanwhile,  Japanese  agents  have  crossed  the 
Yellow  Sea  in  considerable  numbers  to  assist  in  the 
task  of  preparing  China  to  resist  aggression.     They 


lo  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

have  not  proclaimed  their  mission  to  the  world,  but 
in  that  silent,  persistent  fashion  so  characteristic 
of  their  race  have  been  working  for  the  ends  which 
the  Japanese  Government  has  in  view.  These 
subterranean  influences,  according  to  report,  have 
already  produced  tangible  results  in  the  partial 
rehabilitation  of  the  Chinese  arsenals  and  the 
strengthening  of  the  trained  military  forces  of  the 
empire.  But  what  has  been  accomplished  is  of  small 
account  compared  with  the  possibilities  of  the  future, 
if  Japan  herself  is  able  to  maintain  her  position.  On 
this  aspect  of  the  question  I  shall  have  something 
to  say  in  a  later  chapter.  For  the  present  I  only 
note  the  movement  as  one  of  the  influences  which 
have  been  at  work  in  the  Far  East  since  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  between  China  and  Japan. 

A  factor  which  has  profoundly  aflPected  the  situa- 
tion in  the  Far  East  and  given  strength  to  this 
movement  for  the  intimate  association  of  the  two 
empires  is  the  course  of  Russian  diplomacy.  The 
tortuous  methods  by  which  the  Northern  power  has 
directed  her  system  of  '*  peaceful  penetration  "  until 
she  has  not  only  fastened  herself  upon  the  whole 
of  Manchuria,  but  has  also  menaced  Korea  on  the 
one  hand  and  Pekin  on  the  other,  has,  apart  from 
the  bloody  struggle  which  we  are  now  witnessing, 
produced  results  of  the  most  wide-reaching  character. 
There   has   been   an    awakening    of    China   to   the 


'S»-«J 


■"^t^Hkt 


,3r' 


Danger  of  Russian  Encroachment        n 

terrible  danger  which  threatens  her  from  the  in- 
satiable lust  for  dominion  which  characterises  her 
unpleasant  neighbour  on  the  north-east.  It  is 
realised  by  the  thinking  minds  of  the  country  that 
if  the  avalanche  is  not  stayed,  the  Cossack  hordes 
may  overrun  the  country  to  its  very  centre,  and 
that  the  knell  of  China's  independent  existence  will 
be  sounded  before  the  world  is  very  much  older. 
For  some  time  past  Japanese  counsels  have  therefore 
had  considerable  weight  even  at  Pekin,  despite  the 
malign  influences,  partly  of  terrorism,  partly  of 
corruption  which  the  Russians  have  been  able  to 
exercise  on  the  feeble  Mandarinism  of  that  capital. 
The  results  of  this  influence  have  already  been 
apparent  in  several  ways,  and  probably  they  will 
be  still  more  manifest  before  the  war  has  proceeded 
much  further.  The  aptitudes  of  the  two  peoples 
are  so  similar  as  to  make  combination  an  easy 
matter.  Where  a  European  would  be  quite  at  fault 
in  negotiations  with  the  Chinese,  the  Japanese  are 
perfectly  at  home.  They  know  their  men,  and, 
knowing  them,  are  able  to  turn  them  to  their 
purpose  in  the  way  which  seems  best  to  them. 

At  present  there  is  no  desire  that  the  world  should 
know  too  much  of  what  is  going  on  behind  the 
scenes.  The  new  diplomacy  has  no  attractions  for 
the  Japanese.  They  prefer  to  work  in  mole-like 
privacy,  and  only  to  allow  their  work  to  become 


12  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

known  by  its  results.  It  is  this  element  in  their 
policy  which  makes  them  so  formidable  an  opponent 
to  a  European  Power  like  Russia.  It  is  this  element 
which  may  make  them  not  less  dangerous  later 
on  to  other  European  interests,  should  the  fortunes 
of  war  be  in  their  favour. 

At  present  Japan  unquestionably  stands  for 
political  and  commercial  freedom,  as  against  a 
blighting  despotism.  Wherever  Russia  has  put  her 
foot  in  the  Far  East,  all  freedom,  whether  of  trade 
or  of  political  action,  has  been  crushed  out.  Like  the 
cuckoo,  she  appropriates  another's  nest,  and  occupies 
it  to  her  own  advantage.  A  Russianised  China 
would  mean  a  China  with  a  great  tariff  wall  built 
around  it,  which  would  be  an  effectual  barrier  to 
the  trade  of  every  other  nation.  That  she  herself 
would  not  profit  by  the  trade  would  not  concern  her. 
It  would  be  sufficient  for  her  to  know  that  her 
dominion  was  absolute,  that  her  agents  gathered 
exorbitant  dues  at  the  ports  and  that  her  legions 
ranged  unfettered  over  the  Hinterland.  The 
shamelessness  with  which  she  has  carried  through 
her  policy  of  conquest  in  the  face  of  solemn  pledges 
repeatedly  given  is  without  a  parallel  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  Nothing  like  the  recently  pub- 
lished official  correspondence  over  the  occupation  of 
Newchang  has  ever  before  probably  seen  the  light. 
It   is  a  startling  record  of  broken  faith.     Promises 


Character  of  Russian  Diplomacy         13 

are  regarded  as  a  mere  useful  anodyne,  to  be  applied 
when  there  is  irritation  about,  and  to  be  cast  aside 
when  the  inflammation  has  subsided.  It  is  this 
callous  disregard  by  Russia  of  her  own  pledged  word 
which  has  brought  about  the  existing  dangerous 
situation.  It  is  the  same  influence  which  has  given 
the  spur  to  Japanese  progress  and  brought  into  the 
range  of  practical  politics  an  Asiatic  combination 
such  as  has  not  been  witnessed  since  the  palmy 
days  of  the  Moguls. 


CHAPTER   II 

JAPAN — FIRST  IMPRESSIONS — YOKOHAMA — THE  JAPANESE  ARMY 
— CONTRASTS  OF  JAPANESE  LIFE — NATIONAL  CHARACTER- 
ISTICS—  JEALOUSY  OF  FOREIGNERS — TALK  WITH  SIR 
ERNEST  SATOW — JAPANESE  INDUSTRIES — POLITICAL  LIFE — 
JAPANESE  PROGRESS  AND  WHAT  IT  IMPLIES — ^ATTITUDE 
TOWARDS   GREAT   BRITAIN 

I'*  HERE  is  a  charm  about  Japan  which  strikes 
the  traveller  on  first  setting  foot  in  the 
country.  The  brightness  of  the  buildings,  the 
picturesqueness  of  their  surroundings,  and  the  dainti- 
ness of  the  costumes  of  the  women  all  go  to  make 
an  ensemble  which  creates  an  agreeable  impression 
on  the  newcomer,  accustomed  to  the  more  sombre 
outlook  of  the  West.  The  courtesy  of  the  officials 
with  whom  one  is  brought  in  contact  adds  to  the 
pleasantness  of  these  first  impressions  of  the  Far 
East.  Your  customs  troubles  are  of  the  lightest, 
and  there  is  nothing  in  any  other  respect  to  remind 
you  of  days,  within  the  memory  of  people  still  not 
old,  when  the  country  was  a  closed  book  to  the 
European. 

Yokohama,   the   first   port   of    call    for    me,    as 

14 


YOKOHAMA  :   THE  PRINCIPAL  STREET. 


YOKOHAMA  :  A  STREET  SCENE. 


[To  face  p.  14. 


YOKOHAMA  :   A   VIEW  OF  THE   HARBOUR. 


TOKIO  :    A    STREET  SCENE. 


[To face  p.  13. 


First  Days  in  Japan  15 

it  is  for  most  visitors  from  Europe,  is  a  fine 
city,  which  in  its  native  quarters  reminds  one  of 
Bombay  and  other  Indian  cities.  The  houses,  how- 
ever, are  on  a  better  scale,  the  streets  are  sweeter, 
and  the  people  wear  more  clothes.  The  shops  are 
beehives  of  industry.  They  reveal  in  their  great 
variety  and  in  the  character  of  the  goods  shown  the 
commercial  aptitude  of  the  people.  A  great  variety 
of  European-manufactured  goods  are  displayed,  and 
side  by  side  with  them  one  sees  those  artistic  pro- 
ductions for  which  Japan  is  famous.  One  circum- 
stance which  strikes  the  visitor  is  the  small  number 
of  horses  in  the  streets.  The  universal  mode  of 
conveyance  is  the  jinricksha,  the  hire  of  which  only 
costs  one  yen  (two  shillings)  per  day.  The  men  who 
pull  these  small  carriages  travel  sometimes  as  much 
as  eight  miles  an  hour,  and  they  can  go  easily 
fourteen  miles  without  stopping.  A  journey  of 
thirty  miles  in  the  course  of  the  day  is  not  un- 
common. One  reason  given  for  the  excessive 
reliance  on  manual  labour  is  the  absence  of  grass 
in  the  country.  All  hay  has  to  be  imported,  and 
naturally  horse-keep  is  very  expensive. 

Under  the  old  conditions  of  Japan's  existence  the 
banishment  of  the  horse  was  a  matter  of  small 
importance.  But  with  the  necessity  of  maintaining 
a  huge  army  on  European  principles  the  circum- 
stance constitutes  a  serious  drawback.     Cavalry  and 


1 6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

mounted  infantry  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  and 
yet  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  they  are  to  be  produced 
out  of  the  material  to  hand.  At  present  this  branch 
of  the  Japanese  Army  is  exceedingly  weak,  and  if 
it  fails  in  its  present  land  operations  it  will  probably 
be  by  reason  of  its  deficiency  in  this  respect.  As 
far  as  the  military  forces  as  a  whole  are  concerned,  I 
may  perhaps  give  an  extract  from  my  diary  in  which 
a  description  is  given  of  a  review  of  fifteen  thousand 
troops  I  witnessed  soon  after  my  arrival.  I 
wrote  : 

The  infantry  looked  very  efficient  and  the  artillery 
presented  an  exceedingly  smart  appearance.  The 
Emperor,  who  was  present,  while  being  received  with 
profound  respect,  was  not  cheered  by  one  of  his 
subjects. 

I  had  a  long  talk  with  the  Minister  for  War,  General 
Viscount  Katsura  (the  present  Prime  Minister),  He 
told  me  the  Army  is  modelled  on  precisely  the  same 
lines  as  the  German  Army.  No  wonder  the  Japanese 
Army  estimates  are  low,  when  it  is  remembered  that 
the  men  only  receive  two  shillings  per  month  pay! 
Their  food,  which  consists  mainly  of  rice,  is  provided 
by  the  Government.  In  addition  to  their  military 
duties,  they  are  employed  in  making  boots,  saddles, 
and  numerous  articles  for  their  general  use.  Several 
words  of  command  I  heard  were  given  in  English, 
such  as  "  Attention,"  "  Right  turn,"  etc. 

The  War  Minister  does  not  necessarily  change  with 
the  change  of  Government.  General  Viscount  Katsura 
has  been  War  Minister  in  three  successive  Govern- 
ments. 


Contrasts  of  Japanese  Life  17 

I  visited  the  arsenal  and  saw  the  Japs  at  work 
making  small  arms  and  bullets.  I  was  much  struck 
with  the  splendid  building  in  which  the  men  worked — 
lofty  and  well-ventilated  workshops.  Everything  looked 
very  workmanlike. 

The  contrasts  presented  by  life  in  Japan  are  very 
striking — almost  startling.  On  the  one  hand  you 
see  a  picture  like  that  I  have  just  described,  in  which 
you  have  the  last  word  of  European  efficiency  ;  on 
the  other  you  are  confronted  with  a  scene  which 
takes  you  back  to  the  very  remotest  days  of  the 
world's  history.  In  one  quarter  you  will  find 
electric  tramways,  electric  lighting,  and  all  the  latest 
adjuncts  of  civilisation  ;  in  another  you  will  see 
men  carrying  through  the  streets  by  means  of  poles 
and  ropes  a  huge  stone,  the  entire  weight  of  which 
is  imposed  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  perspiring 
bearers  ;  again  you  will  meet  a  motor-car  of  the  latest 
pattern  bustling  through  the  streets  ;  while  in  a  field 
not  far  away  you  will  see  a  labourer  ploughing  with 
an  implement  of  almost  the  exact  pattern  of  that 
used  by  the  Ancients.  The  modern  and  the  old 
jostle  at  every  turn  ;  the  West  and  the  East  are 
in  continual  collision,  and  the  visitor  is  left  with  a 
bewildering  sense  of  incapacity  to  determine  whether 
the  people  really  have  changed  or  whether  what 
one  sees  is  merely  the  evidence  of  a  superficial 
movement  which  does  not  touch  the  heart  of  Japan. 

2 


1 8  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

In  their  domestic  life  the  Japanese  have  certainly 
departed  little  from  their  old  customs  and  habits. 
They  put  on  European  clothes,  and  to  some  extent 
follow  Western  customs  ;  but  if  you  penetrate  to 
their  homes  you  find  that  the  old  life  is  being  lived 
much  as  it  was  in  the  old  days.  I  may  again  refer 
to  my  diary  to  illustrate  my  remarks.  Writing  of 
a  visit  I  paid  to  a  Japanese  family,  I  said  : 

My  host  and  hostess  and  the  members  of  their  family 
sat  on  the  floor  on  small  cushions.  No  chairs  or  tables 
or  anything  high  were  to  be  seen.  Light-coloured  tea 
and  sweet  cakes  were  served.  What  I  did  not  eat  was 
wrapped  up  in  a  paper  parcel  and  handed  to  me  on 
leaving. 

In  greeting  one  another,  the  Japanese  women  kneel 
and  bow  their  foreheads  to  the  floor,  and  murmur  little 
pleasantries.  An  interesting  story  is  told  of  Japanese 
greeting.  Two  men  met  and  bowed  very  low  three 
times,  but  they  were  of  equal  rank  and  very  careful 
not  to  appear  to  be  subordinate  one  to  the  other,  and 
so  both  peeped  up  to  see  if  the  inclination  of  the  other 
was  to  continue  bowing.  This  went  on  until  eight  or 
nine  bows  had  been  exchanged,  when  the  little  comedy 
ended  by  mutual  consent. 

A  servant,  when  he  enters  his  master's  presence, 
kneels  and  remains  on  his  knees  when  talking,  and 
when  answering  questions  he  makes  a  profound  bow. 

The  houses  are  beautifully  simple  and  decorated 
with  perfect  taste — faultily  faultless.  Some  of  the 
wooden  carvings  in  these  houses  are  very  fine.  I  saw 
specimens  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Okura  five  hundred  years 
old.     The  brightly  polished  floors  and  delicate  matting 


A  STREET  SCENE  AT  NIKKO  :   TWELVE   MEN   CARRYING  A   STONE. 


[Tojact p.  i8. 


JAPANESE    BOYS  COUNTING. 


JAPANESE  AGRICULTURE  :    PLANTING    RICE. 


{To  face  p.  19. 


Adoption  of  Western  Dress  19 

make  it  imperative  for  all  foreigners  to  take  their  boots 
off  before  entering  a  house.  This,  however,  is  the 
custom  throughout  Japan.  Wooden  clogs  are  worn 
by  the  Japanese,  and  are  easily  shaken  off ;  but  slippers 
are  provided  for  foreigners  when  they  enter  the  house. 

When  any  one  is  shown  round  a  Japanese  house, 
all  the  servants  come  too,  it  being  considered  impolite 
for  them  not  to  be  present. 

I  went  to  a  garden-party  given  by  the  Emperor. 
It  was  curious  to  see  the  new  Japan.  All  the  assemblage 
— ^Japanese  as  well  as  foreigners — wore  European  dress, 
the  men  tall  hats  and  frock-coats.  Some  of  the  former 
were  a  treat  to  see.  The  ladies  wore  bonnets  and 
European  dresses,  but  as  they  had  no  waists,  I  was 
forced  to  admit  they  looked  most  ungainly. 

The  partiality  for  European  costume  commented 
upon  in  my  notes  seemed  to  me,  from  observation, 
to  be  due  more  to  the  exigencies  of  fashion  than  to 
a  genuine  liking  for  Occidental  dress.  An  incident 
which  went  to  support  this  theory  came  under  my 
notice  later  when  journeying  from  Japan  to  Korea. 
Amongst  the  passengers  on  the  boat  were  the  Baron 
Nishi,  the  Japanese  Minister  to  Pekin,  and  his  wife. 
The  latter  came  on  board  in  a  smart  European 
gown,  but  as  soon  as  the  vessel  had  got  out  to 
sea  she  donned  her  picturesque  native  dress,  and 
wore  this  for  the  remainder  of  the  voyage.  I  was 
told  that  Japanese  find  our  attire  much  colder  than 
their  own.  Possibly  this  circumstance  may,  to  some 
extent,  account  for  the  baroness's  quick  change. 


20  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

Another  point  of  some  interest  indicative  of  the 
tenacity  with  which  old  ways  are  adhered  to, 
despite  the  headlong  speed  with  which  some  of 
the  developments  of  Western  civilisation  are  being 
followed,  is  the  retention  of  the  native  system 
of  calculating.  For  this  purpose  a  contrivance 
known  as  an  abacus  or  a  sorahan  is  used,  and 
without  its  aid  few  Japanese  would  dream  of  making 
a  calculation  if  the  sum  were  a  little  intricate.  As 
an  example  of  the  tendency  to  rely  on  something 
material  for  reckoning,  I  may  mention  the  action  of 
a  secretary  to  an  ambassador  who,  in  arranging  a 
little  luncheon-party  for  six  or  seven  people, 
counted  on  his  fingers  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
he  had  the  correct  number.  The  social  observances 
of  the  Japanese  supply  an  endless  source  of  interest 
to  the  foreigner.  While  at  Kioto,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Japan,  I  saw  a  good  deal  of  genuine  native 
life.  I  transcribe  some  of  my  notes  dealing  with 
the  place  : 

Cremation  is  very  much  in  vogue.  In  olden  days 
funerals  were  always  performed  at  night,  the  idea 
being  that  it  was  more  healthy.  Their  funerals  are 
immense  processions.  I  came  across  one  in  Kioto. 
The  followers  were  numerous,  and  were  dressed  in 
gorgeous  costumes.  They  laughed  and  chatted,  and  it 
was  more  like  a  fair  than  a  solemn  procession.  Even 
the  priest  seemed  quite  happy  and  cheerful. 

W§  saw  a  bit  of  old  Japan  in  the  country — married 


Prcvalancc  of  Earthquakes  21 

women  with  blackened  teeth  and  shaved  eyebrows. 
This  was  a  general  custom  many  years  ago,  but  the 
present  Empress  is  rapidly  stamping  out  this  and  other 
odious  customs. 

It  is  a  curious  thing  to  see  a  Japanese  theatre.  In 
the  entrance  hall  one  sees  piles  of  wooden  clogs  and 
umbrellas,  and  perhaps  one  or  two  pairs  of  boots,  for, 
as  I  have  before  explained,  nobody  is  allowed  to  enter 
any  building  with  his  boots  or  clogs  on.  The  whole 
audience  sit  on  the  floor.  The  stage  is  low  enough  to 
meet  this  condition  of  affairs.  The  people  applaud  by 
clapping  their  hands. 

Some  additional  notes  deal  with  another,  and 
soniewhat  unpleasant,  phase  of  Japanese  life  : 

Earthquakes  are  very  prevalent  in  Japan.  So  fre- 
quent are  the  visitations  that  the  glass  skylights  in 
the  Houses  of  Parliament  have  been  removed,  owing 
to  the  glass  having  been  badly  broken  during  one  of 
the  shocks. 

One  of  the  professors  at  the  university  told  me  that 
he  estimated  that  as  many  as  two  thousand  earthquakes 
occurred  each  year.  He  showed  me  an  instrument  by 
which  they  can  tell  when  an  earthquake  occurs  in  any 
part  of  the  world. 

While  I  was  lunching  with  Mr.  Bardens  at  Kobe, 
we  had  three  earthquakes.  At  the  first,  all  the 
windows  rattled  vigorously,  but  not  sufficiently  to 
alarm  me.  Indeed,  if  Mrs.  Bardens  had  not  got 
up  in  terror,  exclaiming,  "  Earthquake ! "  I  should 
have  thought  little  of  it.  They  say  that,  unlike 
most  things,  you  do  not  get  used  to  earthquakes,  but 
you  become  more  afraid  of  them  after  each  shock. 

Two  other  extracts  dealing  with  matters  of  interest 


22  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

I  may  permit  myself.  The  first  refers  to  Tokio, 
the  capital ;  the  second  applies  to  the  whole  of 
Japan  : 

With  all  the  up-to-dateness  of  the  Japanese,  their 
capital  is  strangely  neglected  in  many  respects.  With 
the  exception  of  one  or  two  main  streets,  no  public 
lights  are  provided.  Here  and  there  one  sees  a  small 
oil-lamp  outside  the  houses  in  the  smaller  streets,  and 
a  faint  glimmer  is  shown.  The  'ricksha  men  carry 
Chinese  lanterns ;  otherwise  collisions  would  be  frequent 
at  night. 

In  all  the  railway  stations  English,  as  well  as 
Japanese,  is  used.  The  bye-laws  and  other  notices 
are  printed  in  both  languages.  No  other  tongue  is 
used,  and  foreigners  are  naturally  rather  jealous. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit  to  Japan  there  was  much 
perturbation  amongst  the  European  community, 
owing  to  the  conclusion  of  the  new  treaty  abolishing 
the  jurisdiction  exercised  by  each  country  over  its 
own  subjects.  For  years  this  matter  had  been 
agitated,  and  the  controversy  had  been  marked  by 
many  violent  and  even  menacing  phases.  On  the 
one  hand  the  Japanese  nationalists  had  clamoured 
for  a  repudiation  of  treaty  rights  without  waiting 
for  the  sanction  of  diplomacy  ;  on  the  other, 
foreign  merchants  had  stoutly  resented  any  inter- 
ference with  existing  arrangements.  In  the  end 
a  way  was  found  out  of  the  impasse  by  the  con- 
clusion   of    a    treaty  which,    while  it   conceded    to 


Extra'Tcrritorial  Jurisdiction  23 

the  Japanese  the  right  of  independent  jurisdiction 
which  they  cherished,  yet  gave  important  compen- 
sating advantages.  The  arrangement  was  hotly 
assailed  as  a  surrender  to  Japanese  pretension,  and 
when  I  was  in  Japan  the  embers  of  the  controversy 
were  still  smouldering.  Since  then,  however,  I 
think  it  has  been  generally  recognised  that  a  per- 
fectly statesmanlike  and  prudent  course  was  taken 
by  our  Government  in  surrendering  gracefully,  and 
for  full  consideration,  rights  which  could  not  in 
any  case  have  been  long  maintained.  In  this 
connection  I  can  but  re-echo  the  words  of  Lord 
Curzon  ^  that  '*  at  least  this  credit  must,  without 
dispute,  be  accorded  to  Great  Britain,  and  should 
never  be  forgotten  by  Japan,  that  first  of  all  the 
great  powers,  at  a  period  anterior  to  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War  of  1894—5,  and  consequently  under 
no  stress  of  expediency,  emulation,  or  self-seeking, 
but  of  her  own  free  will  and  with  ungrudging  hand, 
England  assisted  Japan  to  strike  off  from  herself 
the  shackles  of  a  past  to  which  she  had  proved 
herself  superior,  and  which  is  every  day  fading  into 
a  more  rapid  oblivion." 

Much  of  the  opposition  shown  to   the  abolition 

of  extra-territorial  jurisdiction    was    no    doubt  due 

to  the  distrust  entertained  by  business  men  of  the 

Japanese    traders,    whose    tortuous    methods    were 

*  Problems  of  the  Far  East,  p.  69. 


^4  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

alien  to  Western  commercial  codes  of  right  dealing. 
On  all  hands  I  heard  of  the  craftiness  and  crooked- 
ness of  the  native  dealer,  and  the  impossibility  of 
conducting  negotiations  with  him  on  ordinary  lines. 
Cases  were  cited  in  which  heavy  losses  had  been 
sustained  by  extending  to  them  the  trust  which 
would  be  accorded  as  a  matter  of  course  if  a 
respectable  European  firm  were  in  question.  Their 
desire  always  appears  to  be  to  evade  the  responsi- 
bilities of  a  bargain,  if  anything  is  to  be  gained 
by  doing  so.  Their  conduct  is  not  so  much  due 
to  dishonesty  as  it  is  to  an  inherent  incapacity  to 
accurately  appreciate  commercial  morality,  as  the 
phrase  is  understood  in  the  West.  Time  may  be 
expected  to  correct  this  somewhat  unpleasant 
national  characteristic  of  the  Japanese.  The  nation 
is  nothing  if  not  teachable  and  practical,  and  when 
it  learns,  as  it  must  do,  that  straightforwardness  in 
business  is  a  valuable  asset,  it  will  copy  the 
commercial  morals  of  the  West  as  it  has  adopted 
Western  manners. 

A  force  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  commercial  life 
of  Japan  is  the  intense  feeling  of  racial  exclusiveness 
which  permeates  the  country.  While  the  Japanese 
have  shown  extraordinary  readiness  to  graft  on  to  their 
national  life  the  products  of  Western  civilisation — to 
revolutionise,  in  fact,  their  entire  system  of  Govern- 
ment— they  have  clung  tenaciously  to  the  principle 


TOKIO  :    A   NATIVE   WATER-CART. 


iN    A   jAiANi-.3i-,    \lLi.AGK:    A    GKOLi'    OK    WOMliN    AND   CHILUREN. 

{To  face  p.  24. 


«    > 

00    "g 


Racial  Exclusiveness  25 

which  found  such  vivid  expression  in  Old  Japan, 
that  the  foreigner  was  at  all  costs  to  be  kept  at  arm's 
length.  All  the  great  European  races  have  been 
drawn  upon  at  different  periods  to  serve  as  teachers 
of  Western  arts  in  Japan,  but  their  presence  in 
Japan  has  been  tolerated  rather  than  sanctioned,  and 
as  soon  as  they  have  taught  the  natives  all  that 
there  was  to  be  taught  in  the  different  departments, 
whether  of  the  Navy  or  the  Army,  of  Commerce  or 
of  learning,  they  have  been  dismissed,  and  natives 
have  taken  their  places.  The  country  is  still  to 
some  extent  in  leading-strings,  and  the  time  is  not 
yet  when  foreign  tutelage  can  be  dispensed  with  ; 
but  it  is  morally  certain  that  the  Western  element 
will  not  be  favoured  a  day  longer  than  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

The  jealousy  of  foreigners  was  shown  markedly 
in  the  agitations  which  preceded  the  treaty  revision, 
and  it  has  since  cropped  up  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
One  form  which  it  conspicuously  takes  is  objection 
to  the  introduction  of  foreign  capital  into  public 
enterprises.  The  fear  of  outside  influence  firmly 
establishing  itself  in  the  country  through  the 
medium  of  investments  is  intense,  and  it  is  made 
effective  in  its  expression  by  the  law  which  prohibits 
the  owning  of  land  by  individual  foreigners  outside 
the  European  settlements.  Several  instances  of  the 
way  in  which  the  sentiment  operated  were  brought 


26  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

under  my  notice  during  my  stay,  but  the  most 
recent  are  to  be  found  in  the  last-issued  consular 
report  on  the  trade  of  Japan — that  for  the  year 
1902.  Here  mention  is  made  of  abortive  attempts 
by  British  capitalists  to  finance  certain  Japanese  rail- 
way companies.  The  negotiations  apparently  were 
carried  to  the  point  of  success,  but  were  ultimately 
frustrated  because  the  necessary  Bill  amending  the 
law  did  not  pass  the  Diet.  A  second  example  of 
the  kind  elucidated  in  the  report  is  that  of  the 
Tokio  Gas  Company,  a  sound  concern,  which  sought 
to  obtain  money  from  America  with  a  view  to 
extending  its  business.  "  The  present  capital  is 
about  ^^430,000,  and  it  was  proposed  that  the 
capital  should  be  doubled  and  the  new  shares  taken 
over  by  an  American  capitalist  at  ;^8,  the  market 
value,  the  face  value  being  ^5.  It  should  be  said 
parenthetically  that  this  same  capitalist  had  only 
shortly  before  concluded  another  agreement  on 
similar  lines  with  the  Osaka  Gas  Company.  Fear 
or  jealousy  of  the  foreigner,  however,  prevented  the 
shareholders  of  the  Tokio  Gas  Company  from 
following  the  more  courageous  example  of  their 
Osaka  colleagues  ;  they  thought  it  calamitous  that 
the  foreigner  should  enjoy  equal  privileges  with 
themselves,  and  the  result  was  that  the  negotiations 
fell  through."  A  final  case  cited  is  that  of  the 
Tokio  Electric  Railway.    Money  for  this  enterprise, 


Aversion  to  Influx  of  Foreign  Capital     27 

it  was  proposed,  should  be  sought  in  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Australia  ;  but  such  a  storm  of 
opposition  was  raised  by  a  certain  "  not  very  reputable 
portion  of  the  Tokio  press  "  that  it  seems  at  present 
doubtful  whether  the  negotiations  will  reach  a  con- 
clusion satisfactory  to  the  investing  capitalist. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  feeling  of 
antagonism  to  foreign  capital  is  universal.  From 
what  I  could  hear  there  is  a  substantial  section  of 
native  opinion  which  would  heartily  welcome  the 
investor  from  without,  in  the  full  belief  that  in  the 
absence  of  such  aid  the  full  progress  of  Japan  would 
be  impossible.  The  views  of  this  section  are  well 
expressed  in  a  letter  which  appeared  in  the  Japan 
Times  in  January  of  last  year  from  the  pen  of 
Baron  Yanosuke  Iwasaki,  one  of  the  best-known 
business  men  in  Japan.  The  Baron  (I  quote  from 
the  translation  given  in  the  Consular  report),  after 
drawing  attention  to  the  great  sense  of  personal 
responsibility  which  seems  to  inspire  business  men 
in  European  countries  as  compared  with  Japan, 
where  no  sense  of  responsibility  at  all  seems  to 
exist,  goes  on  to  say  that  though  himself  not  averse 
to  the  introduction  of  foreign  capital,  he  would  have 
the  nature  of  the  undertakings  in  which  it  might 
be  invested  limited.  Enterprises,  for  instance,  like 
railways,  gas-works,  electric  lighting,  etc.,  of  the 
nature   of  monopolies,   are,    he    asserts,    so   closely 


a8  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

connected  with  public  interests  that  they  may  in  a 
sense  be  considered  as  public  undertakings,  and  in 
his  opinion  the  time  has  not  yet  come  when 
foreigners  may  be  allowed,  in  return  for  the  money 
they  advance,  to  have  absolute  control  of  them. 
In  the  present  state  of  Japan's  progress,  when 
general  bewilderment,  lax  discipline,  and  no  sense 
of  responsibility  characterise  the  actions  of  both 
shareholders  in  concerns  and  those  in  charge  of 
them,  there  might  be  ground  for  apprehension 
should  foreign  capital  be  introduced  without  limita- 
tions, lest  foreigners  seize  the  power  of  manage- 
ment of  enterprises  and  use  it  to  an  injurious 
extent. 

There  is  sense  in  what  the  baron  writes,  and  it  is 
probable  that  some  such  middle  course  as  he 
suggests  will  ultimately  be  adopted.  At  all  events, 
we  may  be  sure  that  the  practical  good  sense  of  the 
people  will  see  in  the  long  run  that  to  hold  the 
foreign  capitalist  at  arm's  length  as  they  do  is  neither 
profitable  nor  discreet. 

I  had  many  opportunities  during  my  sojourn  in 
Japan  of  discussing  commercial  questions  with  men 
whose  opinions  were  worth  having.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  of  these  conversations  was  with 
Sir  Ernest  Satow,  then  the  British  Ambassador  to 
Japan  and  at  present  His  Majesty's  representative 
at  Pekin — one  of  the   ablest  and  most  experienced 


Sir  Ernest  Satow's  Views  on  Trade     29 

members  of  the  Diplomatic  Service  who  has  ever 
served  in  the  Far  East.  The  question  uppermost 
at  the  time  was  the  extent  to  which  assistance  was 
given  by  Consuls  to  the  trade  of  the  countries 
which  accredited  them.  There  had  been  a  good 
deal  of  grumbling  at  home  about  the  way  in  which 
our  Consular  representatives  did  their  duty,  and 
their  easy-going  ways  had  been  disadvantage- 
ously  contrasted  with  the  pushing  methods  of  the 
representatives  of  other  countries — notably  in  the 
securing  of  orders  for  ships  for  the  new  Navy  which 
Japan  was  forming.  Sir  Ernest  Satow  entered  fully 
into  this  question  with  me,  and  the  point  of  his 
explanations,  as  recorded  at  the  time  in  my  diary, 
is  of  sufficient  interest  to  be  given  as  it  stands. 
Here  is  the  extract : 

I  called  on  Sir  Ernest  Satow,  and  had  a  long  and 
interesting  talk  with  him  on  the  subject  of  trade  and 
the  extent  to  which  it  might  be  assisted  by  diplomatic 
and  Consular  representatives. 

Sir  Ernest  said  that  owing  to  the  British  Minister 
having  so  many  subjects  under  his  care  all  urging  him 
to  help  British  commerce,  he  was  not  able  to  render 
much  assistance.  It  was  different  with  other  countries. 
It  was  an  easy  matter,  for  example,  for  the  Belgian 
Minister,  who  had  a  mere  handful  of  his  fellow-subjects 
to  look  after,  or  for  the  Russian  and  Italian  repre- 
sentatives, who  had  probably  less,  to  make  their  voices 
heard. 

The  Japanese  make  every  provision  against  business 


30  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

drifting  into  the  hands  of  foreigners.  They  enact  that 
all  Government  contracts  shall  be  tendered  for  only  by 
those  who  have  paid  two  years'  taxes.  The  foreigners 
not  paying  this  particular  tax  are  therefore  prohibited 
from  competing.  The  consequence  of  this  is  that  in 
many  cases  the  Japanese  merchant  who  obtains  a 
contract  must  sub-let  it  to  a  foreign  merchant,  and 
so  the  Government,  so  to  speak,  has  to  pay  a  middle- 
man's profit.  Sir  Ernest  said  that  the  Japanese  pay 
the  highest  price  for  the  materials  they  use  for  the 
Army  and  Navy,  and  take  great  care  that  the  quality 
is  first-rate. 

Sir  Ernest  Satow's  views  on  diplomatic  influence 
on  trade  were  confirmed  by  other  authorities  with 
whom  I  was  brought  in  contact.  In  recent  times, 
at  least  in  the  Far  East,  commercial  concessions  have 
been  made  a  subject  of  direct  diplomatic  bargaining, 
and  the  facility  with  which  particular  nationals  have 
been  able  to  obtain  important  advantages  is  mainly  to 
be  explained  in  this  way.  I  was  told  on  very  high 
authority  that  the  Marquis  Ito  had  stated  that 
Germany  had  diplomatically  stipulated  before  she 
signed  the  treaty  in  reference  to  extra-territorial 
jurisdiction  that  she  should  receive  an  order  for  a 
ship  or  two,  and  that  America,  on  the  score  of  old 
friendship,  had  made  a  similar  request.  I  daresay 
it  is  a  most  diflicult  matter  for  our  representatives  to 
emulate  this  newest  diplomacy,  and  probably  it  is 
not  entirely  desirable  that  they  should  do  so.  Still,  it 
is  undeniable,  I  think,  that  a  more  energetic  course 


Hi    It  iliriiaiift" 
OSAKA  :   THE   MANCHESTER   OF  JAPAN. 


usAKA  :    Cul  ION    MILLS. 


[To  face  p.  30. 


OSAKA  :    NATIVE   BOATS. 


OSAKA  :    THE   YOKOHAMA   CANAL. 


[To  face  p.  31. 


Commercial  Japan  31 

of  action  might  be  pursued  without  detriment 
either  to  the  individual  freedom  of  our  diplomats 
or  to  the  interests  of  the  service  as  a  whole.  On 
this  subject  I  shall  have  something  more  to  say  in 
later  chapters. 

Amongst  the  most  pleasant  incidents  of  my  visit 
was  a  reception  given  to  me  by  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  Nagoya.  The  Members  of  the  Diet 
for  the  division  were  present,  together  with  many 
of  the  leading  merchants  of  the  district.  The  main 
feature  of  the  programme  arranged  for  the  occasion 
was  a  banquet,  followed  by  a  public  meeting  held  in 
a  large  hall.  The  latter  was  conducted  on  Western 
lines.  Through  an  interpreter  I  made  a  speech  on 
the  Parliamentary  and  commercial  aspects  of  Japan, 
which  was  followed  with  keen  attention,  and  elicited 
a  general  discussion  afterwards.  Subsequently,  I 
had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  something  of  the 
nascent  industries  of  Japan,  and  of  judging  for 
myself  as  to  the  extent  of  the  progress  made  in 
the  building  up  of  important  manufactures.  One 
notable  visit  I  paid  was  to  Osaka,  the  great 
industrial  city  of  Japan  ;  it  is  full  of  factories, 
and  intersected  by  canals  in  all  directions — a 
Manchester  and  Venice  combined.  I  reproduce 
the  notes  I  made  in  my  diary  : 

I  went  over  a  cotton-mill  owned  by  the  Settsu  Cotton 
Spinning    Company,    and    found    splendid    airy    and 


32  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

well-ventilated  workshops.  Plats,  of  Oldham,  made 
most  of  the  machinery,  and  the  managing  director,  Mr. 
Kirkuchu,  told  me  that  the  machinery,  though  ex- 
pensive, was  durable.  There  are  seventeen  cotton-mills 
in  Osaka  and  453,606  spindles.  In  all  Japan  there 
are  seventy-four  cotton-mills  and  1,251,000  spindles. 
The  workmen  and  boys,  taken  on  an  average,  receive 
yj^d.  per  day,  the  foremen  2s.  per  day,  and  the  women 
Sd.  per  day.  They  work  eleven  hours  with  two  intervals 
— i.e.  a  quarter  of  an  hour  for  smoking  and  half  an 
hour  for  luncheon  or  dinner.  The  mills  work  twenty- 
two  hours  a  day  in  two  shifts.  No  restriction  is 
put  on  age,  and  many  of  the  children  employed  are 
not  more  than  seven  or  eight  years  old.  The  manager 
told  me  that  wages  had  increased  during  the  last  four 
years  to  the  extent  of  about  one-third,  and  he  thought 
that  they  might  go  on  increasing. 

The  Japanese  principally  import  Indian  cotton,  and 
export  manufactured  goods  largely  to  China.  They 
grow  some  cotton  themselves,  and  import  some  from 
America ;  but  as  they  make  8*-  and  20*-  (particularly 
coarse  makes  of  cotton  goods),  Indian  cotton  is  quite 
good  enough.  r  ^ 

The  enormous  growth  of  the  cotton-spinning 
industry  is  one  of  the  features  of  modern  Japan. 
Aided  by  cheap  labour,  it  has  a  great  appearance 
of  prosperity.  A  large  export  of  the  products 
of  the  Japanese  mills  has  taken  place  to  China 
in  recent  years,  and  this  trade  is  almost  certain 
to  grow  to  large  dimensions  when  the  country 
resumes  its  normal  life  after  the  war.  There 
are    some    people    who    forecast    an    even    more 


Ship^Building  33 

brilliant  future  for  the  trade  and  see  the  time 
when  Japanese  cotton  fabrics  will  be  found  com- 
peting in  wider  markets.  I  will  not  venture  to 
don  the  mantle  of  the  prophet ;  I  will  simply 
content  myself  with  adding  to  my  notes  the 
observation  that  at  present  the  Japanese  do  not 
appear  to  be  able  to  produce  the  finer  classes  of 
goods,  and  that  there  is  no  immediate  prospect  of 
their  overcoming  the  difficulties  with  which  they 
are  confronted. 

It  is  not  alone  the  cotton  manufactures  of  Japan 
which  give  point  to  the  predictions  of  a  yellow 
industrial  peril  looming  in  the  distance.  In  ship- 
building the  country  is  making  great  strides.  The 
far-famed  Mitsu  Bishi  Dockyard  and  Engine  Works 
at  Nagasaki  are  equal  in  the  matter  of  equipment 
and  character  of  workmanship  to  anything  out- 
side Europe  and  America.  A  most  interesting 
description  of  this  is  given  in  recent  Consular 
reports.  There  are  two  docks,  one  of  an  extreme 
length  on  blocks  of  513  ft.,  and  one  of  360  ft., 
while  a  third  dock  with  an  extreme  length  on 
blocks  of  700  ft.  or  more,  is  about  to  be  or  has 
just  been  completed.  A  patent  slip,  capable  of 
taking  vessels  up  to  a  thousand  tons,  is  another 
feature  of  the  establishment.  Such  are  the  resources 
of  the  yard  that  two  vessels  of  600  ft.  and  two  of 
300  ft.  may  be  under  construction  at  the  same  time. 

3 


34  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

Everything  is  thoroughly  up  to  date  in  this  Far 
Eastern  Clydebank.  Magnificent  machinery  driven 
by  electric  power  has  lately  been  laid  down,  and  it  is 
the  enterprising  proprietor's  intention,  according  to 
the  report  of  Mr.  Forster,  the  British  Consul,  to 
entirely  substitute  electricity  and  compressed  air  or 
steam  for  motive  purposes.  It  remains  to  be  stated 
that  the  yard  employs  over  five  thousand  hands,  and 
that  in  1901  no  fewer  than  twelve  vessels,  ranging 
from  ocean-going  steamers  to  steam  launches,  were 
turned  out  from  it.  In  this  enterprise,  which  is  still 
far  from  having  reached  its  zenith,  we  have  a  fitting 
example  of  the  spirit  which  animates  the  new  Japan. 
It  has  made  up  its  mind  not  only  to  cut  a  respect- 
able figure  in  the  world  diplomatically,  but  to  be 
a  great  manufacturing  nation  ;  and  it  is  on  the  fair 
road  to  the  realisation  of  that  ambition. 

Politically  the  Japanese  are  working  out  their 
destinies  on  familiar  British  lines.  They  have  a 
Constitution  which  embodies  most  of  the  principles 
of  our  own.  They  have  a  Lower  House  and  an 
Upper  House,  and  many  of  the  arrangements  which 
obtain  in  our  own  Parliament.  An  important  point 
of  difference,  however,  is  that  the  principle  of 
Ministerial  responsibility  has  not  yet  been  adopted. 
The  members  of  the  Mikado's  Government  may, 
and  in  fact  do,  continue  in  oflftce,  although  an  adverse 
vote  has  been  recorded  against  them  in  the  popular 


Parliamentary  Institutions  35 

chamber.  The  Ministers  are  appointed  by  the 
Emperor,  and  can  only  be  displaced  by  the  exercise 
of  his  authority.  The  position  of  independence  in 
which  office  holders  are  placed  has  not  altogether 
contributed  to  the  stability  of  the  Japanese  Parlia- 
mentary institutions.  On  the  one  hand  it  has 
tended  to  encourage  an  unyielding  attitude  in 
Ministers  ;  on  the  other  it  has  led  to  the  creation 
of  an  element  of  irresponsibility  in  the  Opposition. 
Ministerial  crises  have  been  common  incidents, 
and  the  country  has  been  appealed  to  with  a 
frequency  which  has  been  injurious  to  its  settled 
interests.  The  fact  that  the  place-holders  are 
almost  invariably  drawn  from  one  class — the 
hereditary  aristocracy — has  not  helped  to  smooth 
matters.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  jealousy 
arising  out  of  the  monopoly  of  the  sweets  of 
power  by  the  privileged  classes  is  largely  respon- 
sible for  the  incessant  struggles  which  have  con- 
vulsed the  constitutional  framework  since  Japan 
established  its  Parliamentary  institutions  fifteen  years 
ago.  The  future  will  probably  reveal  some  satis- 
factory solution  of  the  difficulties  encountered, 
which,  after  all,  are  only  those  which  existed  in  this 
country  until,  by  the  process  of  evolution  (perhaps 
it  would  be  more  correct  to  say  revolution)  we 
found  firm  footing  on  the  basis  upon  which  our 
Constitution    now  exists.     Meanwhile,  we   can  but 


36  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

regard  indulgently  the  efforts  of  the  Opposition 
factions  to  work  out  the  country's  emancipation 
on  democratic  lines.  The  manifestations  are  occa- 
sionally irritating  and  even  puerile,  but  they  are 
not  more  so  than  might  have  been  expected  in 
an  old  country  under  an  autocratic  Government 
upon  which  had  suddenly  been  grafted  the  free 
institutions  of  alien  races. 

During  my  stay  in  Tokio  I  naturally  paid  a  visit 
to  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  which  are  temporary 
buildings,  destined  to  be  replaced  some  day,  no 
doubt,  by  ornate  structures  worthy  of  the  new 
Japan.  The  two  Houses  are  constructed  on  almost 
identical  lines.  Behind  the  President's  chair  in 
the  Upper  Chamber  is  the  throne,  but  this  is 
about  the  only  feature  which  distinguishes  it  from 
the  popular  House.  The  model  upon  which 
the  Chambers  are  designed  is  that  of  foreign  legis- 
lative assemblies.  The  members'  seats,  each  of 
which  has  a  desk  in  front,  are  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  horse-shoe  facing  a  raised  platform, 
upon  which  the  President's  chair  is  placed,  with,  in 
addition,  the  Speaker's  tribune  and  a  bench  for  the 
official  reporters.  Placed  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
platform  and  facing  the  assembly  are  rows  of  seats 
for  Ministers  and  permanent  officials  who  have  the 
right  to  speak  but  not  to  vote.  Official  reports  of 
the  proceedings  are  published  in  a  Japanese  Hansard, 


TOKIO:  THE  MAIN  STREET. 


TOKIO:    PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 


[To  face  p.  36. 


TOKIO  :    THE   ENTRANCE   TO  THE  IMPERIAL  PALACE. 


TOKIO  :    THE    I'AKLIAMENT    BUILDINGS. 


[Tofacep.  37. 


Originality  of  the  Japanese  37 

which  for  fulness  and  accuracy  vies  with  our  historic 
publication.  As  Parliament  was  not  in  session  when 
I  was  in  Tokio,  I  had  not  the  opportunity  of  listening 
to  a  debate,  but  I  was  told  that  the  proceedings  are 
marked  as  a  rule  by  courtesy  and  dignity,  and  that 
the  speeches  made  are  excellent  in  style  and  often- 
times marked  by  real  eloquence.  As  a  member  of 
the  oldest  legislative  body  in  the  world,  I  could  not 
help  extending  to  this,  the  youngest,  the  best 
wishes  for  its  future  success. 

It  was  with  genuine  regret  that  I  took  final  leave 
of  Japan.  There  was  so  much  to  interest,  the 
people  were  so  charming  and  hospitable,  and  life 
was  so  comfortable  that  I  would  gladly  have  ex- 
tended my  stay  had  not  inexorable  calls  drawn 
me  reluctantly  onwards.  I  saw  sufficient,  however, 
to  convince  me  that  the  new  star  which  has 
arisen  in  the  Far  Eastern  firmament  is  no  meteor- 
like body,  but  a  fixed  orb  which  is  destined  to 
take  its  place  in  perhaps  the  greatest  of  constella- 
tions. Though  intensely  Asiatic  in  sentiment, 
habits,  and  modes  of  thought  and  expression,  the 
Japanese  have  an  extraordinary  power  of  acquisitive- 
ness and  a  not  less  remarkable  capacity  for  turning 
to  account  what  they  have  learned.  A  circumstance 
which  differentiates  them  from  almost  every  other 
Asiatic  race  is  that  their  minds  are  original.  A 
Hindoo  or  a  Chinese  can  make  almost  exact  imita- 

456895 


38  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

tions  of  any  article  given  to  him,  but  if  he  is  asked 
to  improve  upon  it  he  would  be  hopelessly  at  fault. 
Inventiveness  is  a  practically  unknown  quality  in 
both  India  and  China.  This  is  not  the  case  in  Japan, 
or  at  all  events  to  anything  like  the  same  extent. 
The  Japanese  have  their  engineers  who  produce 
independent  designs,  and  their  artificers  who  have 
their  own  methods  of  working  them.  As  years  go 
by  and  the  effects  of  Western  training  on  the  mind 
of  the  people  are  more  marked,  the  probability  is 
that  we  shall  have  Japan  making  some  contribution 
to  the  general  stock  of  inventions.  In  any  event 
she  may  be  relied  on  to  furnish  an  Asiatic  adaptation 
of  the  products  of  the  original  minds  of  Europe  and 
America.  And  not  only  may  we  look  for  this  in 
the  domain  of  trade  and  science  ;  it  will  be  shown 
also  in  the  arts  of  Government.  Asiatic  civilisation 
does  not  lend  itself  entirely  to  the  free  institutions 
of  the  West.  There  are  warring  elements  which 
decline  to  be  reconciled,  and  though  the  general 
framework  may  be  the  same,  the  filling  in  of  the 
details  must  involve  many  divergences  if  a  satis- 
factory system  is  to  be  finally  evolved.  It  is  here 
that  we  may  look  for  the  display  of  the  original 
bent  of  the  Japanese  mind.  Japan  will  follow  the 
West,  but  she  will  not  be  a  slavish  copyist.  She 
will  from  her  point  of  view  improve  upon  our 
methods  by  dove-tailing  into  the  main  outline  con- 


Attitude  towards  England  39 

trivances  designed  to  harmonise  with  national  senti- 
ment and  with  the  racial  characteristics  of  the  East. 
Nor  is  it  alone  on  her  own  territory  that  the  exercise 
of  her  peculiar  talents  is  to  be  looked  for.  Imme- 
diately outside  her  own  boundaries  is  an  immense 
field  for  the  reformer,  and  political  not  less  than 
commerical  considerations  imperatively  impel  her  to 
occupy  it.  In  the  regeneration  of  China  she  will 
find  a  work  peculiarly  suited  to  her  native  genius 
and  worthy  of  her  ambition.  How  she  may  address 
herself  to  this  task,  and  in  what  manner  she  will 
turn  to  account  the  advantages  which  she  will  reap 
in  the  process  of  developing  her  system  are  matters 
which  I  shall  have  to  discuss  in  a  final  chapter. 
Let  it  suffice  for  the  present  to  say  that  in  the 
pursuit  of  her  aims  she  may  be  expected  to  display 
that  steadfastness  and  acumen  which  she  has  shown 
in  the  present  crisis  in  so  marked  a  way. 

Whatever  the  future  may  have  in  store,  I  do  not 
think  that  we  as  a  people  have  any  reason  to  fear 
that  the  Japanese  will  be  other  than  a  friendly 
and  allied  nation.  Gratitude  is  a  comparative 
quality,  and  in  the  relations  of  Governments  it  is 
apt  to  be  a  diminishing  force  as  the  causes  which 
have  elicited  the  feeling  recede  into  the  distance. 
But  Japan,  apart  from  sentiment,  has  very  good 
reason  for  standing  well  with  us.  We  covet  nothing 
that   she   covets ;    we   do    not   fear    her    successes. 


4©  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

Upon  the  continuance  of  our  moral  support  she 
must  in  almost  any  conceivable  circumstances  rely 
for  a  very  long  time,  if  she  is  to  sustain  no  check 
in  her  onward  march.  All  these  circumstances  tend 
to  induce  the  belief  that  her  attitude  towards  us 
will  be  one  of  entire  friendhness,  and  that  good  feeling 
and  mutual  trust  will  be  the  permanent  groundwork 
of  the  diplomatic  relations  of  the  two  countries. 


K^ULE  ;    NATIVE    BOATMEN. 


TOKIO:    A   PIPE-CLEANER. 


[To  face  p.  ^o. 


FUSAN  :    A   STREET  STALL. 


FLSAN  ;    A 


[To  face  p.  41- 


CHAPTER  III 

THE     KOREAN     TREATY      PORTS  —  SEOUL  —  KOREAN      CHARAC- 
TERISTICS— OFFICIALDOM — IMPERIAL  CAPRICE 

THE  route  to  the  Korean  capital  from  Japan 
lies  through  the  treaty  ports.  Excellent 
communication  is  maintained  in  normal  times 
between  Kobe  and  Nagasaki  and  Korea  by  lines 
of  excellent  steamers  manned  almost  entirely  by 
Japanese.  On  the  boat  on  which  I  travelled — the 
Negato  Maru — the  only  European  member  of  the 
crew  was  the  engineer.  The  cooking  on  board 
was  exceedingly  good,  and  the  journey  proved  on 
the  whole  a  comfortable  one.  Our  course  took  us 
through  the  inland  sea,  the  beauties  of  which  we 
found  to  have  been  not  in  the  least  exaggerated. 
At  Moji,  opposite  Shimonoseki,  a  most  important 
strategical  point  which  has  figured  prominently  in 
the  war  despatches,  we  took  in  coal.  A  large 
tender  brought  the  supply  alongside,  and  after- 
wards it  was  transferred  to  the  ship's  bunkers 
by  baskets  through  the  agency  of  a  chain  of 
men  stationed  between  the  two  points.  The  port 
is   very   heavily   fortified,    as    from    its    importance 

4^ 


42  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

it   requires  to  be,  and  it  would  prove  a  hard    nut 
to  crack  for  the  strongest  fleet. 

It  was  at  Fusan  that  we  got  our  first  glimpse  of 
Korea.  This  is  the  nearest  trading  centre  to  Japan, 
and  the  most  historic  of  the  treaty  ports.  For 
centuries  the  Japanese  have  had  intimate  relations 
with  the  place,  and  a  large  and  flourishing  settlement 
attests  its  present  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the 
enterprising  little  people  across  the  Straits.  Its 
trade  is  a  great  and  growing  one,  and  it  is  no  doubt 
destined  in  the  future  to  be  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  places  in  the  Far  Eastern  seas,  since  it 
has  been  made  the  starting-point  of  the  great  line  of 
railway  which  the  Japanese  have  decided  to  construct 
to  the  northern  limits  of  Korea.  This  enterprise 
was  only  projected  when  I  was  in  Korea,  but  I  have 
since  learned  that  the  works  in  connection  with  it 
have  brought  a  great  accession  of  activity  to  the  port. 
A  new  municipal  hall  has  been  built  by  the  Japanese, 
a  waterworks  system  is  being  constructed,  and  the 
electric  light  has  been  installed.  Meanwhile,  there 
is  in  hand  a  great  scheme  of  harbour  reclamation, 
which  when  finished  will  provide  valuable  sites  for 
commercial  buildings.  The  Japanese,  who  do  no- 
thing by  halves,  have  taken  this  historic  settlement 
in  hand  with  a  definite  idea  that  it  shall  be  worthy 
of  the  position  it  will  occupy  as  the  most  important 
link  in  a  chain  of  ports  stretching  from  Tokio  to 


Treaty  Ports  of  Korea  43 

the  Yalu.  Their  prescience  is  likely  to  be  thoroughly 
justified.  In  a  perhaps  not  distant  future  the 
European  traveller  will  journey  without  a  break — it 
may  be  without  a  change  of  carriage — from  his 
home  in  the  West  to  this  port,  where  powerful  and 
rapid  steamers  will  be  in  readiness  to  convey  him  in 
a  few  hours  to  Nagasaki. 

Mokpo,  the  second  place  of  call  for  us,  is  the 
newest  of  the  treaty  ports.  It  is  little  better  than  a 
village,  and  does  not  show  many  signs  of  enterprise. 
The  harbour,  however,  is  a  good  one,  and  the 
latest  official  reports  indicate  that  its  trade  is 
increasing.  Possessing,  as  it  does,  shipping  facilities 
far  in  advance  of  those  of  which  any  other  port 
in  the  country  can  boast,  it  must  eventually  come 
to  the  front,  more  especially  as  it  is  the  natural 
outlet  of  the  most  fertile  province  in  Korea. 
Wunsan  on  the  east  coast,  Masampo  on  the  south, 
and  Chinnampo  on  the  west  are  other  open  ports. 
They  all  have  considerable  natural  advantages,  but 
for  the  moment  they  are,  as  trading  centres,  almost 
entirely  in  the  making. 

In  coasting  down  Korea  I  was  struck  with  the 
absence  of  lighthouses.  The  navigation,  as  a  con- 
sequence of  this  deficiency,  was  very  difficult  at 
night,  and  great  care  had  to  be  exercised  in  entering 
a  port.  Recently,  however,  a  complete  system  of 
lighthouses    has   been  introduced  under  the    super- 


44  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

vision  of  a  Japanese  engineer  who  has  had  large 
experience  of  the  work  both  in  the  United 
Kingdom  and  in  America.  When  the  installation 
is  complete  there  will  be  no  fewer  than  thirty-one 
lights  at  conspicuous  points  on  the  coast. 

Chemulpo,  the  last  place  of  call  for  the  traveller 
who  is  proceeding  from  Japan  to  the  capital,  is 
a  port  which  has  already  become  world  famous 
from  its  association  with  the  opening  dramatic  event 
of  war.  It  owes  its  importance  more  to  its 
proximity  to  the  capital  than  to  its  conveniences 
for  shipping  ;  for  though  there  is  an  outer  harbour 
with  ample  anchorage  for  ships  of  large  burthen,  the 
inner  commercial  harbour  is  small,  and  a  tendency 
to  silt  up  is  likely  to  further  circumscribe  the  area 
if  artificial  means  are  not  adopted  to  keep  it  open. 
The  place,  however,  is  unquestionably  destined  for 
great  things.  It  is  already  easily  the  first  port  in 
Korea.  Its  exports  in  1902  amounted  to  ;^2 69,747 
and  its  imports  to  ^814,470,  or  about  double 
those  of  Fusan,  which  comes  second  on  the  list  of 
Korean  ports  in  the  matter  of  trade.  The  town  of 
Chemulpo  affords  evidence  of  the  commercial  and 
diplomatic  importance  attached  to  the  port.  It 
is  quite  a  modern  creation,  dating  no  further  back 
than  1883,  when,  as  a  small  fishing-hamlet  situated 
on  a  muddy  estuary,  it  was  thrown  open  to 
foreign  trade.     Four  settlements  make  up  the  new 


CHEMULPO:    FKOM    THE   HARBOUR. 


r*0^ 


-      I 

s 


CHEMULPO:    A   ^IKI  11    SCENE. 


[To  fact  p.  44- 


CHEMULPO  :   A   STKEET  SCENE. 


CHEMULPO  :    THE  GRAIN    MARKET, 


[Tojace p.  45. 


Chemulpo  45 

Chemulpo.  The  Japanese  and  the  Chinese  have 
the  two  largest,  next  comes  the  native  Korean 
location,  and  finally  there  is  the  area  in  which  the 
European  and  American  traders  congregate.  The 
last-named  is  under  the  control  of  a  municipal 
council,  composed  of  the  Consuls,  a  Korean  official, 
and  three  representatives  of  the  landholders.  Each 
consul  has,  as  usual  at  treaty  ports,  jurisdiction 
over  his  own  nationals.  When  I  called  upon  Mr. 
GofF,  the  British  Consul,  on  the  occasion  of  my 
visit,  I  found  him  adjudicating  on  a  case  of  alleged 
murder  with  the  assistance  of  a  jury  of  five. 
Everything  seemed  to  be  conducted  on  the  most 
orthodox  principles.  I  carried  away  with  me  from 
the  court  a  most  gratifying  impression  of  the  way 
in  which  British  justice  is  dispensed  in  this  out-of- 
the  way  corner  of  the  world. 

A  distance  of  twenty-six  miles  separates  Chemulpo 
from  Seoul.  Following  the  usual  route,  I  pro- 
ceeded by  train  to  Nodel,  and  thence  by  a  small 
tramway,  pushed  by  Koreans,  to  Yongsan.  Here 
I  took  the  ferry  across  the  river  Han,  and  on 
reaching  the  opposite  bank  chartered  a  'ricksha, 
which  carried  me  to  my  destination — the  British 
Legation.  Since  then  a  good  bridge  has  been  built 
across  the  Han  and  the  railway  has  been  com- 
pleted to  the  capital,  so  that  the  journey  is  now 
made  without  a  break. 


4^  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

Seoul  is  a  large  walled  city,  with,  it  is  estimated, 
a  population  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  or 
more.  Its  outward  aspect  is  that  of  a  Chinese  city, 
and  its  situation  in  a  saucer-like  depression,  with 
high  hills  all  round,  is  not  unpicturesque.  There 
are  eight  gates  to  the  town,  each  surmounted  by 
a  double  pent-house  type  of  building,  presumably 
for  defensive  purposes.  The  wall  itself  is  over 
twenty  feet  high.  It  is  built  of  stone,  and  is  con- 
structed in  accordance  with  Asiatic  principles  of 
fortification.  The  area  enclosed  is  much  larger 
than  that  actually  built  upon.  From  the  very 
unsuitable  character  of  much  of  the  vacant  land 
for  habitations,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  object 
was  to  make  the  town  more  secure.  Whether  that 
be  the  explanation  or  not,  the  wall  is  now  merely 
a  useless  obstruction  :  it  would  not  be  proof  against 
the  lightest  modern  artillery  for  half  an  hour. 
However,  the  integrity  of  the  city,  until  a  few  years 
since,  was  as  jealously  guarded  as  if  the  defences 
were  those  of  a  Sebastopol  or  a  Gibraltar.  Every 
night  at  sunset  the  gates  were  closed  and  the  keys 
were  taken  to  the  palace,  or  if  the  Chinese  com- 
missioners were  in  Seoul,  they  were  handed  to  them. 
This,  with  many  other  singular  customs,  have  now 
departed,  never  probably  to  be  revived. 

In  more  practical  matters  the  city  has  also  vastly 
changed  for  the  better  in  late  years.    Improvements  in 


Seoul  47 

sanitation,  the  introduction  of  tramways,  the  widen- 
ing of  streets,  and  the  general  furbishing-up  which 
has  been  given  the  place  have  completely  transformed 
it  from  what  it  was  even  a  few  years  ago.  It 
remains,  however,  to  the  visitor  a  disappointing 
city.  When  the  novelty  of  the  first  impressions 
has  worn  off,  and  one  has  become  accustomed  to 
the  quaintness  of  some  of  the  customs  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  feeling  engendered  is  one  of 
boredom.  The  shops,  excepting  a  few  of  the 
newer  establishments  kept  by  foreigners,  are  of  the 
poorest.  Though  Korea  was  the  home  of  the 
far-famed  Satsuma  ware,  and  Seoul  the  birthplace 
of  its  maker,  native  art  is  now  practically  non- 
existent. In  vain  may  the  curio-hunter  look  for 
those  interesting  examples  of  indigenous  work 
which  in  most  instances  he  is  able  to  take  away 
with  him  from  a  country.  Whatever  there  may 
be  in  the  way  of  objets  d'art  has  been  imported 
either  from  Japan  or  China.  The  city. is  just  a 
great  monotonous  waste  of  houses  with  a  Western 
veneering,  which  assorts  somewhat  ill  with  the 
body  upon  which  it  is  laid. 

The  royal  palaces  are  the  only  structures  with 
any  pretension  to  architecture  in  Seoul.  There  are 
several  of  them  scattered  over  a  wide  area,  but 
the  buildings  which  are  usually  occupied  by  royalty 
are  two  situated  in  a  vast  enclosure  in  the  northern 


4^  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

part  of  the  city.  The  one  mostly  favoured  by  the 
Emperor  is  known  as  the  Old  Palace,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  other  building,  which,  though 
also  old,  was  of  later  date.  The  latter  structure, 
as  it  exists  to-day,  is  in  reality  what  it  is  styled, 
for  the  original  palace  having  been  burnt  down 
in  1882,  it  was  afterwards  entirely  rebuilt.  A  broad 
roadway  leads  up  to  the  Old  Palace,  and  access  is 
gained  to  it  through  a  massive  gateway  of  charac- 
teristic Korean  design.  The  actual  palace  consists 
of  a  congeries  of  buildings,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  the  great  Hall  of  Audience,  a  massive 
erection  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps  and 
surrounded  by  a  terrace.  It  is  here  that  the  great 
court  functions  take  place.  I  had  not  the  good 
fortune  to  be  present  at  any  of  these  ceremonials, 
but  I  was  assured  by  those  who  had  witnessed  them 
that  they  were  highly  interesting  and  not  wanting 
in  a  certain  dignity.  Not  far  from  the  Hall  of 
Audience  are  the  buildings  of  the  Summer  Palace, 
where  the  King's  private  apartments  are  situated. 
Some  three  years  since  the  electric  light  was  installed 
here  under  the  supervision  of  an  American  engineer, 
and  some  quaint  stories  are  still  current  in  Seoul 
as  to  the  attitude  assumed  by  His  Majesty  towards 
the  new  illuminant.  The  royal  menage  is  a  curious 
one.  Indeed,  much  of  the  gossip  of  the  Korean 
capital  turns   on  the  extraordinary  intrigues  which 


SEOUL:   ONE  OF  THE   CITY   GATES. 


SEOUL:    SOLDIERS   PARADING. 


[To  face  p.  48. 


< 

f^ 


Intrigue  in  the  Korean  Palace  49 

go  on  literally  behind  the  curtain  in  this  Far 
Eastern  palace.  Concession  hunters  haunt  its 
ante-chambers,  and  for  years  a  sort  of  pull-devil-pull- 
baker  struggle  has  gone  on  between  them  with 
the  officials  as  arbiters  of  the  game.  The  principle 
which  governs  the  proceedings  is  that  much  may 
be  had  for  the  asking,  but  nothing  without  payment. 
Ministers  are  not  above  taking  a  hand  in  the  game  ; 
but  the  principal  actors  were  Yi  Yong  Ik,  the 
Finance  Minister,  and  Lady  Om,  the  leading  lady 
of  the  Imperial  harem.  Between  the  two  a  pretty 
business  was  done,  to  their  great  monetary  advantage. 
Latterly  diplomatists  have  been  busy  in  these  back- 
stair  regions,  and  higher  stakes  have  been  played  for, 
with,  we  may  confidently  assume,  not  less  benefit 
to  the  pockets  of  the  members  of  the  Imperial 
household.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  condition  of  affairs 
by  no  means  without  parallel  even  in  the  modern 
annals  of  the  East.  But  none  the  less  it  excites 
our  wonder  that  a  kingdom  built  on  such  founda- 
tions should  have  lasted  so  long  as  it  has  done. 
The  fact  indicates  the  staying  power  of  even  effete 
despotism  when  the  mutual  jealousies  of  powers 
outside  combine  to  preserve  it. 

In  and  about  the  palace  one  catches  many 
glimpses  of  the  military  forces  of  the  Korean 
Empire.  Like  other  adjuncts  of  that  puissant 
entity,  they  are    a  subject  of  scorn  rather  than  of 

4 


so  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

respect.  The  native  Korean  properly  handled  and 
under  a  regular  system  of  government  would, 
there  is  little  doubt,  develop  into  a  splendid  soldier, 
as  he  has  just  the  qualities  which  go  to  make  up  the 
fighting  man.  But  the  ineradicable  corruption  and 
disorganisation  of  the  administrative  system  under 
which  he  lives  is  an  effectual  bar  to  real  efficiency. 
The  men  are  to  some  extent  trained  on  European 
principles,  and  they  are  armed  with  modern  weapons 
of  precision,  but  it  would  be  impossible  to  place 
them  in  line  against  any  disciplined  troops.  In 
fact,  the  Korean  Army,  though  some  seven  or 
eight  thousand  strong,  is  a  mere  rabble,  contemptible 
as  an  instrument  of  offence  or  defence,  and  only 
dangerous  as  an  agency  of  disorder  in  times  of 
trouble.  The  estimation  in  which  it  is  held  at  Seoul 
by  responsible  foreign  authorities  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  on  the  outbreak  of  the  present  war  the 
men  were  deprived  of  their  ammunition.  It  was 
no  doubt  thought  that  the  Korean  capital  would 
be  the  safer  if  its  defenders  were  deprived  of  the 
power  of  mischief. 

Having  touched  briefly  upon  some  of  the  leading 
features  of  Korea  as  they  are  presented  to  the 
visitor  from  afar,  I  pass  on  to  a  more  general  survey 
of  Korean  life.  As  an  appropriate  preface  to  my 
remarks  I  may  introduce  the  following  amusing  set 
of  verses,  which,  though  they  have  passed  from  hand 


The  Land  of  Cho  Sen  51 

to  hand  amongst  the  European  residents  of  Korea, 
have,  I  believe,  never  before  appeared  in  print : — 

KOREA,   OTHERWISE  CHO  SEN. 
{The  Land  of  the  Morning  Calm,  or  Morning  Radiance!) 

There's  a  singular  land  far  over  the  seas, 

Which  is  known  to  the  world  as  Korea, 
Where  there's  nothing  to  charm  one  and  nothing  to  please. 

And  of  cleanliness  not  an  idea ; 
Where  a  lucid  description  of  persons  and  things 

Quite  baffles  the  readiest  pen, 
And  stirs  up  strange  qualms  in  the  poet  who  sings 

Of  the  far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen. 

The  houses  they  live  in  are  mostly  of  dirt, 

With  a  tumble-down  roof  made  of  thatch ; 
Where  soap  is  unknown,  it  is  safe  to  assert, 

And  where  vermin  in  myriads  hatch  ; 
The  streets  are  all  reeking  with  odours  more  rife 

Than  the  smell  from  a  hyena's  den ; — ■ 
One  visit  is  surely  enough  for  one's  life 

To  that  far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen  ; — 

Where  the  garments  are  made  on  a  very  queer  plan, 

And  are  something  quite  out  of  the  common. 
And  women  wear  pantaloons  just  like  a  man. 

Young  men  braid  their  hair  like  a  woman ; 
The  married  man  gathers  his  hair  on  the  top, 

In  a  knot  much  resembling  a  wen, 
The  female  coiffure  is  a  huge  ugly  mop. 

In  that  far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen  ; — 

Where  the  hats  have  a  crown  much  too  small  for  the  head, 
While  the  brim  measures  sev'ral  feet  round  ; 

Where  the  principal  fire  is  under  the  bed. 
And  the  chimney's  a  hole  in  the  ground  ; 


52  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

Where  the  coolies  can't  work  without  singing  a  song 

And  must  stop  for  a  rest  now  and  then, 
While  they  snatch  a  few  whiffs  at  a  pipe  three  feet  long 

In  that  far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen  ; — 

Where  foreigners  flock  from  over  the  seas 

To  help  the  bland  natives  make  money, 
Where  hives  are  well  filled  by  Korean  bees. 

But  the  foreigner  gets  all  the  honey ; 
Where  shopkeepers  ought  to  be  rolling  in  wealth 

From  the  prices  they  charge  one — but  then 
'Tis  not  at  all  likely  they  go  for  their  health 

To  that  far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen  ; — 

Where  the  king,  in  a  manner  becoming  a  prince 

Is  charmed  with  each  fresh  innovation. 
And  plays  with  post  offices,  steamers,  and  mints 

At  a  grievous  expense  to  the  nation  ; 
Where  guileful  strangers  big  contracts  have  made, 

But  find,  when  they  ask  for  their  yen, 
It's  a  very  cold  day  when  employees  are  paid 

In  that  far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen ; — 

Where  those  who  escape  never  care  to  return 

To  that  "  Morning  Calm  "  country  again  ; 
Where  there's  nothing  on  earth  that  could  cause  one  to  yearn 

For  that  far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen. 

In  this  lively  little  poem,  which  has  been  kindly 
placed  at  my  disposal  by  an  old  resident,  are 
very  happily  hit  off  the  leading  characteristics  of 
the  country.  It  is  a  veritable  land  of  paradox.  At 
every  turn  you  are  confronted  with  strange  con- 
trasts ;  on  every  hand  your  notions  of  the  fitness 
of  things  receive  sharp  shocks.  Even  the  con- 
tradictoriness  of  many  of  the  features  of  the  national 


*        Korean  Misgovernment  53 

life   of  the  Japanese  has  scarcely  prepared  you  for 
the  wonders  of  this  "far-away  land  of  Cho  Sen." 
Though    situated  in   close  proximity  to    China  on 
one   side    and   Japan   on    the   other,    it    resembles 
neither.     It  has,  as  far  as  it  has  been  allowed,  lived 
a   life    of  isolation,    and    even    temporary  conquest 
has   not    stirred    it   out    of    its   own    chosen   rut. 
Korea  and  the  Koreans  are,  in  fact,  very  much  what 
they  were  centuries  ago.     They  have  not  progressed 
and  they  have   not  retrograded  ;  they  have  simply 
stood  still,  looking  out  on  the  restless  world  with  a 
childish  self-sufficiency  which,  while  the  current  of 
international   life    surged   in    other  directions,    was 
a    sufficient    safeguard    from    violent    change.      A 
Government  of  phenomenal  badness  has  helped  to 
further   stereotype   the   conditions  of  the   country. 
Its    rottenness  and    inefficiency  long   since    reached 
the  point  beyond  which  it  was  impossible  to  descend. 
The   people   have  become  so    accustomed  to   mal- 
administration   that  it  seems  to    them    the    natural 
law,  and  they  do  not  even  struggle  against  it.     If 
they    cannot   evade    the    subversive    edicts    of    the 
official  clique  directed  from   Seoul,  they  submit  to 
them  with   as  good  a  grace  as  possible.     Plunder 
is  so  common  a  rule  of  the  country  that  Koreans 
have    no    incentive    to    effort.      Poverty    is    their 
surest  safeguard  against  oppression,  and  it  is  cheer- 
fully   accepted.     So    it    happens    that   with    many 


54  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

natural  advantages,  including  one  of  the  finest 
climates  on  the  globe,  Korea  is  amongst  the  poorest 
countries  in  the  world,  measured  by  the  ordinary- 
standards  of  prosperity. 

The  Koreans  themselves,  apart  from  their  Govern- 
ment, have  been  widely  represented  as  a  people  of 
a  low  moral  type.  On  a  superficial  view  no  doubt 
they  give  this  impression.  Slothful,  dirty  in  their 
habits,  easy-going  in  their  morals,  and  markedly 
unstable  in  character,  they  appear  to  be  peculiarly 
a  *'  sunk  people,"  to  use  a  phrase  common  in  our 
political  life  a  century  ago.  But  there  is  more 
than  a  suspicion  that  writers  who  have  sketched 
the  Korean,  largely,  of  a  necessity,  from  the 
vantage-point  of  the  capital  or  the  treaty  ports, 
have  done  him  an  injustice.  Those  who  have  had 
intimate  relations  with  the  people  in  their  homes 
away  from  the  beaten  track  of  civilisation,  and  have 
studied  them  closely  under  many  conditions,  give 
them  a  very  different  character  to  that  popularly 
current.  Their  hospitality,  good-humour,  and 
politeness  are  all  testified  to,  while  a  most  emphatic 
denial  is  given  to  the  charge  of  laziness.  On  the 
latter  point  the  experience  of  the  foreign  mining 
enterprises  supplies  us  with  striking  evidence. 
The  natives  most  readily  take  up  employment  at 
the  mines  ;  so  eager,  indeed,  are  they  for  employ- 
ment that  there  are  always  six  or  more  candidates 


The  Korean  as  a  Working  Man         SS 

for  every  vacancy  that  occurs.  They  are  hard- 
working and  most  intelligent.  Their  aptitude  for 
handling  machinery  is  quite  remarkable.  After 
a  not  protracted  probation  they  will  take  charge 
of  engines,  and  tend  them  with  a  skill  and  an 
indifference  to  danger  which  inspire  the  utmost 
confidence  in  their  employers.  Such  are  their 
characteristics  that  a  gentleman  who  has  had  wide 
experience  in  Korea  as  a  mining  engineer  described 
them  to  me  as  a  '*  brainy "  people.  He  knows 
of  no  Asiatic  race — and  he  has  had  business 
acquaintance  with  most — who  are  so  eminently 
teachable  and  who  are  so  prompt  to  apply  the 
lessons  they  have  learned.  Under  proper  super- 
vision, in  his  view,  they  are  capable  of  great  things. 
If  they  are  shown  the  way  and  are  sure  of  reaping 
the  fruits  of  their  labour,  they  will  be  found  willing 
and  able  to  take  up  almost  any  useful  work.  I  am 
glad  to  put  this  view  of  the  Korean  forward,  as  it 
may  serve  to  dispel  misconceptions  which  are  deeply 
rooted  and  which  have  had  a  good  deal  of  influence 
in  colouring  our  opinions  of  Far  Eastern  questions. 

The  vices  of  Korea,  we  may  safely  assume,  are 
mainly  the  product  of  its  Government.  It  is  an 
autocracy  of  the  feeblest  and  most  servile  type, 
backed  by  a  bloated  bureaucracy  which  sits  like  a 
vampire  upon  the  heart  of  the  country,  drinking 
its   life-blood.     Justice,    in    the    true   sense    of  the 


5  6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

word,  there  is  none,  and  there  is  only  a  semblance 
of  law.  The  general  administration  is  a  travesty  of 
government,  as  we  know  the  term.  The  most 
elementary  duties  are  not  performed,  and  progress 
is  an  unheard-of  phrase,  excepting  in  cases  in  which 
outside  influence  supported  by  backsheesh  has  forced 
on  the  country  some  of  the  adjuncts  of  Western 
civilisation.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  land  of  "  squeeze." 
That  a  people  should  show  some  symptoms  of 
degeneracy  in  the  presence  of  such  a  system  is  not 
remarkable.  The  stoutest  moral  fibre  would  give 
way  if  continually  subjected  to  the  corrosive  in- 
fluences of  misgovernment  so  abysmal. 

With  so  little  to  attract,  Korea  might  have 
remained  long  in  its  anything  but  splendid  isolation 
if  the  country  had  been  geographically  less  advan- 
tageously placed.  But  it  was  inevitable,  when 
Russia  advanced  her  legions  across  the  steppes  of 
Siberia  and  intruded  upon  Manchuria,  that  it  should 
become  a  bone  of  contention.  One  has  only  to 
look  at  the  map  to  understand  what  its  possession 
implies.  Placed  in  a  commanding  position  between 
the  Japan  Sea  and  the  Yellow  Sea,  divided  on  the 
South  from  Japan  by  only  a  comparatively  narrow 
strait,  and  with  good  harbours  on  its  Western  coast, 
it  practically  dominates  the  route  to  the  Gulf  of 
Pechili  and  Northern  China.  It  would  be  wrong 
to  say,  perhaps,  that    the  country  which    possesses 


Strategic  Importance  of  Korea  57 

Korea  will  become  the  mistress  of  the  Far  Eastern 
Seas,  but  unquestionably  no  power  can  hope  to  wield 
undisputed  supremacy  which  does  not  control 
Korean  destinies.  To  Japan  the  exclusion  of  foreign 
influence  from  the  peninsula  is  a  matter  of  vital 
importance.  An  adverse  power  seated  across  the 
Straits  of  Korea  would  be  a  continual  menace  to 
her  national  existence.  Hence  it  happened  that 
Japan,  at  the  very  first  symptom  of  Russian 
aggression  in  Korea,  made  her  dispositions  for  resist- 
ance, and  finally  staked  her  all  on  a  conflict  with 
the  mightiest  military  power  in  the  world. 

Korea,  though  one  of  the  most  ancient  countries 
in  the  world — it  dates  its  history  back  to  the  twelfth 
century  before  Christ — was  until  a  few  years  ago 
one  of  the  least  known  in  Europe.  Until  a  period  a 
little  more  than  a  quarter-century  since  no  foreigner 
was  permitted  to  travel  in  the  country.  It  would 
have  been  an  absolutely  closed  book  had  not  some 
venturesome  French  missionaries,  carrying  their  lives 
in  their  hands,  established  themselves  in  several 
parts  of  the  interior  a  good  many  years  ago.  Japan, 
however,  can  boast  a  long  and  intimate  connection 
with  this  "  Land  of  the  Morning  Calm."  As 
far  back  as  the  year  1443  she,  in  agreement  with 
the  Korean  authorities,  established  a  settlement  at 
Fusan.  A  century  later  her  conquering  hordes 
under  Hideyoshi   (or   Taikosama)    swept   over  the 


58  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

country  like  a  desolating  hurricane,  inflicting  upon 
the  unfortunate  inhabitants  a  punishment  the  effects 
of  which  are  remembered  to  this  day,  and  have  lent  a 
colouring  to  the  modern  relations  of  the  two  peoples. 
We  hear  now  of  the  rapprochement  of  the  two 
nations  in  the  presence  of  the  Japanese  successes,  but 
it  is  a  union  based  on  fear  rather  than  on  sentiment. 
Much  as  the  Korean  dislikes  the  European,  he 
detests  the  Japanese  a  good  deal  more.  If  the 
Koreans  were  not  so  handicapped  by  their  upper 
classes,  their  animosity  might  be  expected  to  be 
an  important  factor  in  the  future  adjustment  of  the 
country's  relations  with  outside  Powers.  As  it  is, 
it  will  probably  be  rapidly  driven  under  the  surface 
by  the  force  of  circumstances,  more  especially  if, 
as  appears  likely  to  be  the  case,  the  pressure  of 
Russian  authority  is  removed  or  greatly  modified. 

If  Korea  was  long  withdrawn  from  association 
with  the  outer  world,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
since  its  opening  to  foreigners  it  has  atoned  for 
its  old  exclusiveness.  Courted  by  all  the  great 
Western  Powers,  cajoled  by  China,  and  threatened 
by  Japan,  it  has  stood  continuously  in  the  last  i^^ff 
years  in  the  fierce  light  of  international  publicity. 
While  diplomatic  representatives  have  struggled  and 
squabbled  within  its  gates,  foreign  traders  have 
invaded  its  ports  and  flooded  the  interior,  reaping 
a    golden    harvest    either    as    concessionaires   or    in 


Resources  of  Korea  59 

the  more  humble  guise  of  commercial  representa- 
tives. Railways  and  enterprises  of  a  kindred  kind, 
as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  show,  have  been 
established,  an  army  of  a  sort  has  been  created, 
a  police  force  organised,  and  generally  there  has 
been  a  stirring  up  of  old  bones,  with  results  which 
have  thoroughly  aroused  the  country  from  its  long 
sleep.  There  are  some  who  think  that  the  pace 
is  too  rapid  to  last ;  there  are  others  who  consider 
that  the  poverty  of  the  country  will  be  an  effectual 
barrier  to  progress  when  in  due  course  Korea 
is  withdrawn  from  the  unpleasant  position  of 
prominence  into  which  it  has  been  thrust  by  recent 
events.  But  it  may  prove  that  both  views  are 
wrong.  Left  to  themselves,  the  Koreans  would 
probably  soon  slip  back  into  the  slough  in  which 
they  have  existed  for  many  centuries.  If,  however, 
they  come  under  the  influence  of  a  more  energetic 
power  like  the  Japanese,  they  may  yet  show  that 
they  are  capable  of  attaining  to  a  respectable  place 
amongst  Eastern  nations. 

As  to  the  resources  of  Korea,  we  must  not  too 
readily  assume  that  it  is  a  poor  country.  Though 
it  is  not  of  remarkable  fertility,  it  has  great  expanses 
of  good  agricultural  land  which,  with  improved 
methods  of  tillage,  might  be  made  to  yield  heavy 
crops.  It  has,  it  is  believed,  vast  mineral  resources, 
the  development  of  which  is  in  its  infancy  ;  and  in 


6o  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

its  splendid  forests  it  has  an  asset  the  value  of  which 
Russia  has  been  quick  to  appreciate.  The  natural 
presumption  is  that  the  real  opening  up  of  Korea, 
which  must  follow  the  war  if  Japan  is  successful, 
will  work  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  country, 
both  as  regards  the  habits  of  the  people  and  the 
expansion  of  its  resources. 

In  entering  Korea  from  Japan,  as  I  did,  the 
traveller  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  marked 
difference  there  is  between  the  characteristics  of  the 
two  countries.  Racially  the  Japanese  and  the 
Koreans  have  a  good  deal  in  common,  but  here  the 
similarity  ends.  In  manners,  dress,  and  habits  the 
diversity  is  most  striking,  though  only  a  hundred 
miles  of  sea  separate  the  two  peoples.  In  Japan 
everything  about  the  houses  is  scrupulously  clean  ; 
in  Korea  the  domestic  surroundings  are  as  markedly 
dirty.  The  Japanese  are  a  thrifty,  industrious  race  ; 
the  Koreans  are  conspicuously  thriftless  and  easy- 
going, and  they  add  to  these  defects  a  limited 
sense  of  patriotism  which  further  separates  them 
from  their  neighbours.  There  are  many  monuments 
of  antiquity  in  Japan,  and  beautiful  buildings  asso- 
ciated with  the  religious  life  of  the  country.  In 
Korea,  outside  a  few  centres,  there  are  few  remains 
indicative  of  the  existence  of  an  old  civilisation. 
The  points  of  difference  might  be  multiplied  in- 
definitely,   but  I  will  not  weary  my  readers  by   a 


SEOUL:    A   STKKET    SCENE, 


KOREANS  AT   DINNER. 


[To  face  p.  60. 


Korea  contrasted  with  Japan  6i 

further  enumeration.  I  must,  however,  refer  in 
this  connection  to  what  is  after  all  the  most  marked 
feature  of  contrast  between  the  two  countries  to  the 
eye  of  the  visitor — costume.  The  colour  and  variety 
and  daintiness  which  add  such  a  charm  to  the  aspect 
of  a  Japanese  gathering  are  replaced  in  Korea  by 
a  monotonous  persistence  in  the  selection  of  white. 
Almost  without  an  exception  every  single  person 
one  meets  is  clothed  in  white.  The  explanation 
given  me  of  this  singular  idiosyncrasy  is  that  white 
is  the  mourning  colour,  and  that  as  it  is  customary 
to  mourn  a  queen  for  three  years,  it  was  found 
convenient  some  considerable  time  since,  after  the 
death  of  a  popular  queen,  to  perpetuate  the  custom, 
the  arrangement  appealing  to  the  innate  supineness 
of  the  Korean  as  well  as  to  his  lack  of  wealth. 
Whatever  may  be  the  truth  of  this,  the  prevalence 
of  white  costumes  conveys  a  very  striking  impression 
to  the  new-comer.  The  novel  effect  is  heightened 
by  the  association  with  the  costume  of  a  hat  fashioned 
something  on  the  lines  of  the  old  Welsh  bonnet. 
It  has  an  immensely  broad  brim,  and,  being  tied 
under  the  chin  with  black  ribbons,  gives  a  very 
whimsical  look  to  the  male  wearer.  Hats  play  a 
very  important  part  in  the  social  economy  of  Korea. 
Mr.  Campbell  remarks,  in  his  monograph  previously 
referred  to,  that  it  would  take  a  volume  to  exhaust 
the  subject.     The  monks  have  a  collection  of  their 


62  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

own.  Their  travelling  hat  is  a  large  umbrella-like 
framework  of  cane,  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter  at 
the  brim,  and  closing  to  a  sharp  point  at  the  top. 
The  whole  is  covered  with  smooth  rush  matting, 
bound  at  the  brim  into  a  hexagon  by  a  narrow 
edging  of  white  cotton,  and  fitted  inside  with  a 
circle  of  cane  to  clasp  the  head.  Nuns  may  often 
be  seen  trudging  along,  staff  in  hand,  and  their 
hats  are  even  more  striking  :  a  wisp  of  fine,  flexible 
straw,  elaborately  bound  at  one  end,  cut  sharply 
off  at  the  other,  so  as  to  make  it  a  foot  long, 
and  quaintly  dumped  on  the  crown  of  the  head. 
The  courtiers  also  have  their  distinctive  hats.  They 
are  of  huge  dimensions — in  some  cases  two  or  more 
feet  in  diameter — and  are  made  of  clay  ! 

An  amusing  story  accounts  for  the  selection  of 
this  extraordinary  material  for  the  fashioning  of 
headgear.  It  is  related  that  some  years  since  the 
ruler  of  the  day  was  greatly  annoyed  at  the  habit 
his  functionaries  had  of  whispering  to  each  other 
during  the  progress  of  the  State  ceremonial ;  so 
he  hit  upon  the  device  of  furnishing  them  with  a 
hat  which  would  make  these  irritating  exchanges 
of  confidences  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  He 
certainly  effected  his  object,  for  it  would  pass  the 
wit  of  the  most  inveterate  gossips  to  "  put  their 
heads  together "  while  these  fearful  and  wonderful 
contrivances  adorned  them.     An  Imperial  whim  is 


Attire  of  Korean  Women  62 

held  to  account  for  another  conspicuous  feature  of 
the  attire  of  the  official  Korean — a  band  of  woven 
horsehair  which  fits  tightly  round  the  head.  The 
origin  of  this  curious  adornment  is  attributed  to  a 
desire  on  His  Imperial  Majesty's  part  to  restrain  the 
intellectual  powers  of  his  servants.  According  to 
his  notion,  brains  might  expand  if  not  thus  held  in. 
It  is  not  uninstructive  to  know  that  the  Emperor 
does  not  deem  this  adornment  necessary  in  his 
own  case. 

Yet  a  further  example  of  exalted  caprice  is 
furnished,  if  tradition  speaks  truly,  by  an  amazing 
custom  which  astonishes  the  visitor  from  outside. 
I  refer  to  the  baring  of  the  breasts  of  women.  The 
Korean  female  wears  an  attire  which  effectually 
covers  every  portion  of  the  body  excepting  that 
which  has  been  indicated.  The  practice  appears 
the  more  extraordinary  as  the  Korean  woman  is 
most  careful  to  conceal  her  face  if  a  male  stranger 
approaches.  Her  attitude  is  like  that  of  the  ostrich, 
which  puts  its  head  in  the  sand  because  it  believes 
that  by  so  doing  it  will  not  be  seen.  The  story- 
goes  that  the  custom  is  attributable  to  a  palace 
intrigue.  One  night  a  male  got  into  the  Royal 
presence  disguised  in  the  dress  of  a  female,  and 
the  intruder  being  discovered,  the  king  issued 
an  edict  that  henceforward  all  women  should  go 
about  with  bare  breasts,  so  that  there  might  be  no 


64  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

sort  of  doubt  about  their  sex.  These  stories  might 
be  dismissed  as  mere  malicious  inventions  if  the 
Korean  Court  were  not  notoriously  constructed  on 
lines  which  give  to  some  of  its  doings  the  character 
of  Savoy  opera.  Such  being  its  tendencies,  there 
is  nothing  inherently  improbable  in  them. 

A  circumstance  which  lends  some  amount  of 
support  to  the  last  related  story  about  the  attire 
of  Korean  women  was  the  prevalence,  until  quite 
recent  times,  I  believe,  of  a  practice  of  shopping 
hours  for  females.  At  a  particular  hour  a  bell  was 
rung,  as  a  signal  that  all  men  were  to  clear  away 
from  the  streets,  in  order  that  the  softer  sex  might 
make  their  perambulations  without  encountering 
the  masculine  gaze.  When  they  had  completed 
their  purchases  the  bell  was  again  rung,  as  a  signal 
that  the  streets  were  once  more  opened  to  general 
traffic.  This  singular  custom  points  to  the  fact 
that  at  one  time  the  Korean  women  were  as  rigidly 
secluded  as  females  are  in  Mohammedan  countries. 
Therefore,  the  sumptuary  regulation  referred  to 
may  not,  when  introduced,  have  seemed  so  out- 
rageous as  it  appears  to-day.  I  should  state, 
however,  to  avoid  misconception,  that  the  better 
class  Korean  women  do  not  appear  in  public  even 
at  this  day. 

Before  taking  final  leave  of  this  interesting  ques- 
tion   of  Korean    social  customs,   I  may  mention  a 


Nameless  Women  65 

curious  point  bearing  on  the  attitude  of  the  Korean 
men  towards  their  women-folk.  This  is,  that  the 
members  of  the  softer  sex  are  nameless.  A  woman 
is  generally  known  as  the  **  preen "  of  a  certain 
man,  or  his  mother  or  sister.  Before  marriage  she 
has  some  nickname  or  pet  name.  But  this  is  the 
extent  of  the  recognition  of  the  individuality  of  the 
female  in  "  The  Land  of  the  Morning  Calm." 


CHAPTER   IV 

KOREAN  ARISTOCRACY — RELIGION — NATIVE  SUPERSTITION — 
MISSIONARY  EFFORT — POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  KOREA — 
AN   APPLE   OF   DISCORD — JAPANESE   INFLUENCE 

ONE  has  not  to  reside  in  Korea  long  to 
become  aware  of  the  fact  that,  as  in  the 
countries  of  the  West,  there  are  gradations  of 
society  with  a  rigid  dividing  Hne  between  each. 
Mr.  C.  W.  Campbell,  in  his  official  report  before 
referred  to,  which,  though  made  as  far  back  as 
1 891,  yet  remains  one  of  the  best  authorities  on 
native  life  in  Korea,  gives  some  most  interesting 
details  on  this  subject,  which  I  make  no  apology 
for  introducing  here,  as  they  so  clearly  represent 
the  position  of  affairs.  Society,  we  are  told,  is 
divided  theoretically  by  the  Koreans  into  three 
broad  classes  :  the  "  Sang,"  or  upper  ;  "  Chung,"  or 
middle  ;  and  the  "  Ha,"  or  lower.  In  reality  the 
gradations  in  the  social  scale  are  endless,  as  in  most 
countries  which  are  civilised  or  semi-civilised.  The 
"  Nyang-pan  "  represents  the  upper  class  of  Korean 
society.  The  term  "  Nyang-pan " — literally,  two 
orders — originally  indicated  rank  of  a  certain  degree 

66 


The  Korean  Nyang-pan  67 

in  either  the  civil  ("  Tong-pan ")  or  military  (So- 
pang)  service  only  ;  but  it  is  now  applied  to  the 
descendants  of  all  important  officials,  no  matter 
whether  these  have  acquired  rank  or  not.  Ancestry, 
of  course,  accounts  for  a  great  deal  in  such  a  class. 
At  one  time  those  alone  who  were  descended  from 
the  officers  of  the  early  kings  of  the  present  dynasty 
were  held  to  be  proper  *'  Nyang-pan."  In  process 
of  time  later  arrivals  acquired  the  title,  but  the 
old  families  have  never  failed  to  look  on  such  as 
interlopers,  to  be  treated  with  scant  courtesy  unless 
they  are  rich  and  influential.  The  upper  ranks  of 
officialdom,  are,  in  fact,  the  peerage  of  Korea,  and 
they  are  open  only  to  members  of  "  Nyang-pan " 
families  who  are  powerful  at  Court. 

The  "  Nyang-pan "  enjoys  many  of  the  usual 
privileges  of  nobility.  He  is  "  exempt  from  arrest, 
except  by  command  of  the  Emperor  or  the  governor 
of  the  province  in  which  he  resides,  and  then  he 
is  not  liable  to  personal  punishment  except  for  the 
gravest  crimes,  such  as  treason  or  extortion.  He 
wields  an  autocratic  sway  over  the  inmates  of  his 
house,  and  has  full  licence  to  resent  any  real  or 
fancied  insult  levelled  at  him  by  '  Ha-in  '  just  as 
he  pleases.  At  the  same  time,  the  '  Nyang-pan '  lies 
under  one  great  obligation,  noblesse  oblige ;  he  cannot 
perform  any  menial  work,  or  engage  in  any  trade 
or  industrial  occupation.    Outside  the  public  service, 


68  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

teaching  is  the  only  form  of  employment  open  to 
him.  If  he  seeks  any  other,  he  sinks  irrevocably 
to  the  level  of  his  occupation.  There  is  no  law 
laid  down  on  the  point.  The  penalty  is  enforced 
socially,  and  is  part  of  the  unwritten  code  of  '  Nyang- 
pan '  etiquette.  These  privileges  and  obligations 
have  naturally  influenced  the  character  of  the  class, 
so  that  the  officeless  '  Nyang-pan,'  no  matter  how 
poor,  is  proud  and  punctilious  as  a  Spanish  hidalgo, 
not  above  asking  favours  with  the  most  shameless 
effrontery,  yet  keen  to  resent  the  slightest  shade  of 
disrespect  from  an  inferior. 

**  To  his  equals  the  *  Nyang-pan '  is  always 
courteous  and  polite.  With  them  he  bandies  jests 
with  the  greatest  good-humour,  and  exercises  a 
great  deal  of  judgment  in  his  demeanour  towards 
older  persons  and  those  who  are  entitled  to  his 
respect.  In  general,  foreigners  find  that  Koreans 
of  this  class  are  well-bred  people,  endowed  with 
good  taste  and  tact,  and  polished  in  their  manners 
and  conversation.  Towards  '  Ha-in,'  however,  the 
*  Nyang-pan '  is  popularly  supposed  to  behave  with 
great  injustice  and  cruelty.  No  doubt  this  is  true 
in  very  many  instances,  but,  so  far  as  my  observa- 
tion goes,  I  should  say  that  the  reports  current  on 
the  subject  are  exaggerated. 

**  The  income  of  a  well-to-do  *  Nyang-pan  * 
generally   proceeds    from    estates    in    the    country, 


Queer  Social  Conventions  69 

either  in  the  shape  of  produce  or  of  rent  paid  in 
money  or  kind  by  the  tenants.  Fuel,  represented 
by  brushwood  and  grass  cut  from  the  uncuhivated 
hills,  also  comes  from  this  property  of  his,  and 
rice  and  fuel  complete  the  list  of  Korean  necessaries 
of  life,  as  well  to  the  '  Nyang-pan  '  as  to  the  peasant. 
The  poorer  '  Nyang-pan,'  and  their  name  is  legion, 
eke  out  a  threadbare  existence  as  tutors,  or  hangers- 
on  in  the  bureaux  of  men  in  office." 

To   these    informing    notes   of   Mr.  Campbell   I 
may  add  some    facts    which   were    brought   to   my 
notice   in    travelling    through    Korea.      One    story 
I  was  told  related  to  an  English  traveller  who,  for 
the    purposes   of  a    tour  up  country,  was   able   to 
engage   as   his   cook   an    official   who    acted  as  in- 
terpreter   to    the    Emperor    of    Korea.      Another 
tourist,    a    friend    of    mine,    employed    a    Korean 
nobleman    to  go  a  journey   into  the  interior   with 
him  in  the  capacity  of  interpreter.     He  was  quite 
content   to   take   office,    but    he   stipulated   that  he 
should  never  be  asked  to  carry  parcels.     His  pride 
of  birth  did  not  stand  in   the  way  of  his  making 
a  pressing  request  to  be  supplied  with  a  handker- 
chief, and  he  was  not  content  until  my  friend  had 
purchased  one  for  him.     To  our  Western  notions 
there  seems    something  particularly  incongruous  in 
the   idea   that   noblemen    should    compromise   their 
dignity    by    this    polite    form    of  begging,    but  the 


7©  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

Korean  aristocrats  have  no  sense  of  the  social  shame 
entailed  by  placing  themselves  under  obligations. 
It  is  a  common  thing  for  them,  I  was  told,  to  make 
open  requests  for  loans  of  comparative  strangers. 
Nor  are  they  a  bit  disconcerted  when  it  is  mildly 
pointed  out  to  them  that  such  conduct  is  hardly 
consistent  with  their  position  in  society. 

The  "  Nyang-pan  "  is  one  of  the  curses  of  Korea. 
That  he  *'  toils  not,  neither  does  he  spin,"  is  a 
small  matter  compared  with  the  influence  for  evil 
he  exercises  on  an  imitative  race.  As  the  *'  Nyang- 
pan  "  deems  labour  in  any  form  a  degradation,  it  has 
become  the  highest  ambition  of  those  of  a  lower 
social  strata  to  be  in  a  position  to  emulate  the 
lazy  habits  of  the  caste.  Thus  the  great  confederacy 
of  drones  has  been  swollen  to  huge  dimensions,  to 
the  national  detriment. 

Religion  is  not  a  strong  point  of  the  Koreans. 
They  are  nominally  classed  as  Buddhists,  but  their 
Buddhism  is  of  a  degraded  type,  and  even  at  that 
has  slight  hold  on  the  people.  The  exponents  of 
the  faith  are  little  esteemed  by  the  mass  of  the 
population.  It  may  be  said,  indeed,  that  the  tonsure 
is  held  in  absolute  contempt,  at  least  by  the  higher 
classes.  Nor  is  it  surprising  that  it  should  be  so 
when  we  find  the  manner  in  which  the  priestly 
ranks  are  filled.  The  monks  are  either  sons  of 
parents  who  in  infancy  have  got  rid  of  them,  owing 


A    KOKEAN   NYANG-PAN   (ARISTOCRAT)   AT  HOME. 


[To  face  p.  70. 


Monastic  life  in  Korea  71 

to  the  pressure  of  poverty  or  because  they  are 
weakly,  or  they  are  adults  who  have  been  allured 
by  the  attractions  of  a  lazy,  secluded  life  on  the 
beautiful  slopes  of  the  Diamond  Mountains,  where 
the  Korean  hierarchy  has  established  its  monasteries. 
"  So  well,"  says  Mr.  Campbell,  "  are  the  attractions 
of  the  monastic  life  recognised  in  Korea  that  it  is 
quite  a  common  thing  for  parents  to  visit  the 
temples  in  search  of  sons  who  have  disappeared 
without  apparent  cause.  The  *  Pang-chang  '  of  one 
of  the  Ch'ang-an  Sa  shrines  was  discovered  by  his 
poor  old  mother  in  this  way  after  years  of  absence, 
and  his  vows  being  irrevocable,  she  sought  and  was 
accorded  an  asylum  in  the  lay  quarter." 

The  monks  as  a  class  are  singularly  ignorant. 
"  Few  of  them,"  to  quote  Mr.  Campbell  again,  "  know 
much  of  Buddhism  or  its  history,  and  none  could 
make  any  pretence  to  explain  intelligibly  the  pur- 
port of  the  books  they  use  at  their  services.  The 
pronunciation  of  a  few  constantly  recurring  Sanscrit 
and  Thibetan  syllables  are  the  stock-in-trade  of  all, 
though  many  possess  a  respectable  knowledge  of 
Chinese,  which  is  the  Korean  embodiment  of  every- 
thing we  mean  by  the  word  *  education.'  One 
would  look  far  for  the  remotest  tinge  of  religious 
fervour  amongst  the  dull,  cadaverous  creatures  who 
predominate  in  most  monasteries.  On  the  whole, 
the  shrines  themselves  are  not  wanting  in  the  im- 


7*  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

pressiveness  characteristic  of  holy  places  ;  but  what- 
ever effect  this  might  be  calculated  to  have  on  the 
minds  of  devout  persons  must  certainly  be  dissipated 
by  the  perfunctory  mummery  which  is  dignified  with 
the  name  of  worship.  Bond-fide  pilgrims  in  search  of 
spiritual  comfort  are  rare  ;  I  only  came  across  two." 

I  had  not,  unfortunately,  during  my  stay  an 
opportunity  of  visiting  the  Diamond  Mountains 
and  seeing  the  Buddhist  priest  at  home.  But  those 
who  had  made  the  journey  assured  me  that  the 
experience  was  one  of  singular  interest.  The 
scenery  in  the  vicinity  of  the  monasteries  can 
scarcely  be  surpassed  anywhere.  Nature  there  is 
in  her  happiest  and  most  impressive  mood.  The 
monasteries  look  out  on  a  glorious  landscape  of 
valleys  and  forest-clad  mountains,  the  whole  forming 
a  coup  d'ceil  of  extraordinary  attractiveness. 

The  Koreans  are  by  no  means  unsusceptible  to 
the  influences  of  this  lovely  spot.  Periodically 
the  wealthier  classes  go  out  from  Seoul  to  the 
monasteries  to  feast  their  eyes  on  the  magnificent 
scenery,  and  to  make  their  devoir  to  the  spirit  of 
beauty  which  broods  over  all.  This  nature  cult 
is  about  the  only  sincere  element  of  religion  there 
is  in  the  Korean.  He  is  a  superstitious  animal, 
and  in  the  brooding  silence  of  the  great  gorges 
and  the  black  depths  of  the  mountain  forests  his 
imagination  conjures  up  visions  of  the  supernatural 


Native  Superstition  73 

forces  which  have  their  home  there.  His  faith  is 
a  form  of  demonology.  All  his  life's  actions  are 
coloured  by  his  belief  in  the  potency  of  the  evil 
spirits  with  which  in  his  fancy  he  invests  himself. 
At  no  time  is  his  respect  for  these  maleficent 
agencies  greater  than  when  death  enters  the  house- 
hold. Then  the  whole  family  wear  a  piece  of 
cloth  over  their  mouths  to  prevent  the  dead 
relative's  spirit  from  entering  the  body.  A  morbid 
horror  of  poor  mortality  is  manifested  in  the 
character  of  the  mourning  observances.  I  was  told 
when  in  Seoul  of  the  case  of  a  Minister  who  was 
obliged  to  desist  from  seeing  his  dead  son  because 
if  he  had  done  so  he  would  not  have  been  allowed 
to  have  audience  of  the  Emperor  for  three  months. 
With  such  views  in  the  ascendant,  we  need  not  be 
surprised  at  the  moral  degradation  of  Korea  and 
at  the  feebleness  of  its  national  life.  Nor  is  it 
remarkable  that  the  country  since  its  opening  should 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  European  and 
American  missionary  societies.  There  are  now 
many  organisations  at  work  throughout  the 
peninsula.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  a  very 
flourishing  mission,  with  thousands  of  native  ad- 
herents. The  English  Church,  though  much  later 
in  the  field,  has  also  firmly  established  itself,  while 
from  America,  Canada,  and  Australia  missionaries 
have  also  been  sent   to   take  part   in  the   work  of 


74  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

evangelisation.  Their  operations  were  marked  in 
early  years  by  outbreaks  of  native  hostility  which 
called  for  the  intervention  of  the  Powers.  But  a 
different  spirit  now  prevails. 

In  no  Eastern  country  probably  is  missionary 
work  carried  on  under  safer  conditions  or  with  a 
greater  prospect  of  success.  The  people,  naturally 
good-tempered  and  kindly,  respond  readily  to  the 
influences,  social  and  religious,  which  are  brought  to 
bear  upon  them,  and  place  no  difficulties  whatever 
in  the  way  of  the  proselytising.  The  fact  that  they 
have  practically  no  faith  makes  the  missionary  labours 
the  easier.  Not  only  is  their  *'  open  mind  "  recep- 
tive, but  it  is  quite  free  from  the  fanaticism  which  in 
the  Chinaman  makes  shipwreck  at  times  of  the 
missions.  I  am  told  that  the  form  in  which  the 
proselytising  is  best  appreciated  is  when  it  is  pre- 
sented in  a  medical  guise.  The  natives  have  an 
immense  respect  for  the  skill  of  the  Western 
physician  or  surgeon,  and  they  flock  in  great  numbers 
to  centres  where  the  spiritual  teaching  is  supple- 
mented by  professional  assistance  in  matters  affect- 
ing the  health  of  the  body.  One  American  medical 
missionary  at  Ping- Yang,  the  old  capital  of  Korea, 
who  makes  a  speciality  of  eye  diseases,  which, 
by  the  way,  are  very  prevalent  in  the  country, 
has  made  a  great  name  for  himself.  His  power 
to    restore  sight   to    those  who,  to  all  intents  and 


Political  History  of  Korea  75 

purposes,  were  blind  has  worked  upon  the  ima- 
ginations of  the  ignorant  Koreans,  and  has  secured 
for  him  a  feeling  of  respect  which  verges  on 
reverence.  On  such  congenial  soil  the  seed  sown 
cannot  but  be  abundantly  multiplied,  more  especially 
when  the  country  has  once  more  settled  down 
after  the  war. 

The  political  history  of  Korea,  especially  in  most 
recent  times,  is  a  tangled  web  of  intrigue  and 
disorder  which  it  would  be  wearisome  for  me  to 
attempt  to  unravel  even  if  I  had  sufficient  inner 
acquaintance  with  the  life  of  the  Korean  Court  to 
attempt  the  task.  I  may,  however,  indicate  a  few 
of  the  main  points  in  the  story  for  the  better 
elucidation  of  what  I  have  written  and  what  will 
appear  in  subsequent  chapters. 

Though  European  diplomacy  has  only  in  the 
last  two  or  three  decades  interested  itself  in  the 
affairs  of  Korea,  the  country  has  for  many 
centuries  been  an  apple  of  discord,  owing  to 
its  geographical  position  between  Japan  and  China. 
Alternately  these  countries  have  had  ascendency 
in  Korean  affairs  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
to  which  each  was  able  to  assert  itself.  Japan's 
connection  goes  back  to  the  third  century,  when 
a  force  under  an  Amazonic  empress  invaded  the 
country,  and  at  the  point  of  the  sword  extorted 
an    unwilling    submission.      The    connection    thus 


y6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

formed  continued  almost  unbroken  until  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  establishment  of 
the  Ming  dynasty  on  the  Korean  throne  brought 
China  upon  the  scene.  Her  influence  soon  became 
strong  and  eventually  paramount.  Japan,  however, 
was  not,  to  be  ousted  from  her  privileged  position 
lightly.  She  organised  the  great  expedition  under 
Hideyoshi,  previously  referred  to,  and  for  six  years 
the  invaders  swept  and  re-swept  the  country  from 
end  to  end,  finally  leaving  behind  them  bitter 
memories  which,  as  has  been  stated,  linger  to  this 
day.  Following  this  blighting  campaign,  there  was 
a  protracted  interval,  during  which  the  relations 
between  the  two  countries  were  broken  off.  There- 
after Japanese  influence  was  re-established,  but  not 
in  its  former  strength.  The  Chinese  tie  was 
maintained,  and  Japan  had  to  content  herself  with 
the  revival  of  a  system,  earlier  followed,  by  which 
tribute  was  paid  by  an  annual  mission  ^ent  to 
Tokio.  Gradually  this  custom  lost  force,  until 
it  died  out  altogether  in  the  fourth  decade  of  the 
last  century.  Through  the  medium  of  a  mission 
despatched  in  1868  to  Seoul  to  announce  the 
resumption  of  full  sovereignty  by  the  Mikado,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  re-establish  the  old  protectorate. 
But  the  invitation  of  the  Japanese  Court  met  with 
an  emphatic  refusal.  Nor  were  two  subsequent 
efibrts  directed  to  the    same   end    more   successful. 


Japan  and  China'  in  Korea  77 

The  Japanese  were  rebuffed,  but  not  defeated. 
They  discreetly  bided  their  time.  Their  oppor- 
tunity came  in  1875,  when,  a  Japanese  man-of-war 
having  been  fired  on  by  the  Koreans  from  the  island 
of  Kanghwa,  the  Mikado's  Government  extorted 
from  the  Government  at  Seoul  a  treaty  which  con- 
tained valuable  provisions,  not  the  least  of  which 
was  an  affirmation  of  the  independence  of  Korea. 
A  subsequent  convention,  concluded  in  1882,  with 
Korea  strengthened  the  foothold  secured,  and  Japan 
further  scored  heavily  in  1885,  when  she  arranged 
with  China  the  convention  of  Tientsin,  under  which 
the  two  Powers  entered  into  a  mutual  agreement  to 
withdraw  their  troops  and  not  to  send  an  armed 
force  into  Korea  in  future  without  giving  previous 
intimation  to  the  other.  From  this  period  the 
efforts  of  the  Japanese  were  directed  to  the  exten- 
sion and  consolidation  of  their  power  in  the  country. 
It  was  a  struggle  between  Japanese  statecraft  and 
Chinese  guile,  with  Korea  acting  the  part  of  corpus 
vile.  It  ended  in  the  Chino-Japanese  War,  with  all 
its  chain  of  important  consequences. 

How  the  Japanese  successfully  drove  the  Chinese 
out  of  Korea  and  followed  up  their  success  by 
occupying  Port  Arthur  and  Wei  Hai  Wei  is  an 
over-familiar  tale  which  I  need  not  recount.  It  is 
equally  unnecessary,  for  the  purposes  of  this  brief 
sketch,  to  outline  the  subsequent  events  to  Japan's 


78  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

diplomatic  eviction  from  the  Liaotung  Peninsula 
and  Russia's  installation  in  her  place ;  to  the 
occupation  of  Manchuria  and  to  the  Russian  en- 
croachments on  the  Yalu  in  association  with  a  policy 
of  strenuous  intrigue  at  Seoul.  All  that  need 
be  done  is  to  point  out  how  profoundly  the  course 
of  Korean  history  has  been  altered  by  this  series  of 
events.  From  being  merely  the  battle-ground 
of  the  two  rival  Asiatic  empires,  Korea  became 
the  pivot  upon  which  the  whole  international  policy 
turned.  Japan  and  Russia  were  the  actual  com- 
batants in  the  new  duel,  but  behind  each  was  a 
separate  grouping  of  great  Powers  keenly  interested 
in  the  final  adjustment  of  the  dispute. 

The  outbreak  of  war  between  the  two  protagonists 
in  the  second  week  in  February  put  an  end  to  an 
intolerable  situation.  The  result  is  still  in  the  womb 
of  time,  and  I  shall  not  venture  to  anticipate  the 
future.  But  it  may  be  of  interest  to  record  some 
facts  acquired  from  a  reliable  source  which  show 
the  thoroughness  with  which  Japan  prepared  for 
the  crisis.  At  least  two  years  since,  observant 
people  in  Korea  noticed  an  exceptional  irruption  of 
Japanese  into  the  country.  They  came  mysteriously 
in  all  sorts  of  guises,  and  they  penetrated  to  every 
part  of  the  country.  Many  of  them  are  believed 
to  have  been  expert  surveyors  commissioned  to 
map  out  the  country  and  supplement  information 


Japanese  Influence  79 

already  in  the  Japanese  archives  ;  others  were  men 
whose  duty  it  was  to  note  the  amount  of  supplies 
available  in  particular  districts.  The  greater  number 
were  soldiers  specially  commissioned  to  prepare  the 
people  for  the  impending  invasion  of  the  Japanese 
host,  and,  if  necessary,  to  act  as  an  advance  guard 
of  the  main  body.  No  fewer  than  forty  thousand 
of  these  agents  are  credibly  reported  to  have  been 
sent  into  Korea,  and  their  presence  there  helps  us 
to  understand  to  some  extent  the  serene  confidence 
with  which  Japan  embarked  upon  the  contest 
with  her  mighty  rival.  We  also  gather  from  these 
facts  a  vivid  insight  into  the  intense  absorption 
of  the  Japanese  in  Korea,  and  their  dogged  de- 
termination at  all  costs  to  keep  it  free  from  foreign 
intrusion. 


CHAPTER  V 

KOREAN  TRADE  —  RAILWAY  DEVELOPMENT  —  OPENINGS  FOR 
COMMERCE  —  NEW  INDUSTRIES  —  KOREAN  CURRENCY — 
TELEGRAPHS — BRITISH   SHIPPING 

THE  question  of  Korean  trade  is  one  of 
exceptional  interest  to  all  the  great  com- 
mercial nations,  and  not  least  to  ourselves  as  tlie 
predominant  trader  in  the  Far  Eastern  markets. 
With  a  population  which,  according  to  the  latest 
official  accounts,  is  estimated  at  ten  millions,  Korea 
obviously  offers  an  exceptionally  good  opening  for 
enterprise,  since  it  is  not  a  manufacturing  country  to 
the  smallest  extent  and  must  import  almost  every- 
thing which  it  requires  in  the  way  of  clothing, 
machinery  and  the  equipment  needed  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  Until  a  little  more  than 
twenty  years  ago  it  was  an  absolutely  close  preserve 
for  Chinese  and  Japanese  merchants,  who  supplied 
all  that  was  demanded  by  the  inhabitants  in  satis- 
faction of  their  modest  needs.  The  opening 
of  Chemulpo,  Wunsan  and  Fusan  as  treaty  ports 
made  a  breach   in   the    barriers   raised   against   the 

80 


Trade  of  the  Treaty  Ports  8i 

outside  world  ;  and  the  addition  of  Chinnampo, 
Masampo,  Mokpo  and  Wiju  to  the  list  of  re- 
cognised trading  centres  accentuated  the  movement 
in  the  direction  of  unrestricted  commerce.  The 
foreign  trade  of  the  country  has  increased  steadily 
year  by  year,  until  in  1902  the  imports  and 
exports  amounted  to  the  high  aggregate  of 
^^2,745,346.  This  is  a  respectable  amount  for 
an  Eastern  country  which  is  regarded  as  a  poor 
one,  but  it  far  from  represents  the  true  potentialities 
of  trade  under  settled  conditions  and  in  the 
presence  of  real  progressive  administration.  I  may 
go  further,  indeed,  and  say  that  the  returns  now 
are  but  a  feeble  indication  of  what  they  may  be 
in  a  future  which  is  not  far  distant,  assuming  that 
the  hand  of  war  is  not  laid  too  heavily  on  the 
country.  The  fact  is  that  Korea  is  even  now 
practically  virgin  soil  for  the  trader.  A  country 
largely  without  roads  or  regular  means  of  com- 
munication outside  the  coast  districts,  and  yet 
possessing  a  fine  climate,  considerable  natural  re- 
sources, and  a  large  and  docile  population  amenable 
to  the  influences  of  civilisation,  it  offers  openings 
for  trade  enterprise  to  a  remarkable  extent.  How 
far  it  will  be  possible  for  Western  commerce  to 
avail  itself  of  these  will  depend  largely  probably 
upon  the  policy  of  the  victor  in  the  struggle  now 
proceeding  ;  but  in  almost  any  conceivable  circum- 

6 


82  Far  Eastern  Impressfons 

stances  there  must  be  a  great  impetus  given  to 
all  the  special  departments  of  business  which  cater 
for  the  needs  of  the  China  markets. 

At  present  the  one  great  and  crying  need  of 
Korea  is  railway  communication.  As  things  are, 
on  the  one  hand,  the  great  agricultural  industry, 
which  gives  employment  to  more  than  70  per  cent, 
of  the  people,  languishes  because  it  is  impossible 
to  find  markets  for  the  surplus  stock  and  produce 
of  the  interior  ;  and  on  the  other,  trade  misses  some 
of  its  best  markets  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  goods 
cannot  be  forwarded  to  possible  customers  excepting 
at  an  impossible  cost.  The  Japanese,  with  ready 
intuition,  have  grasped  the  situation  completely. 
Railway  extension  has  been  a  leading,  it  may  be 
said  the  cardinal,  feature  of  their  Korean  policy. 
Piece  by  piece  they  are  building  up  what  promises 
to  be  a  splendid  system  designed  to  unite  all  impor- 
tant points  by  one  life-giving  steel  band.  Their 
first  venture  was  the  short  line  connecting  Seoul 
with  Chemulpo.  This  railway  was  originally  an 
American  concession.  The  rights  were  sold  to 
Japan,  who  turned  them  to  account  in  business- 
like fashion.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Mikado's 
Government  a  company  was  formed  with  a  capital 
of  2,500,000  yen  (about  ^250,000)  to  construct 
this  all-important  line  between  the  capital  and 
the    coast.       Of  the    amount,    700,000    yen    only 


Japanese  Railway  Enterprise  83 

was  subscribed  capital.  The  remainder  was  a  loan 
free  of  interest  from  the  Japanese  Government, 
to  be  repaid  out  of  surplus  profits  after  the  share- 
holders had  received  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent. 
The  enterprise  has  proved  an  excellent  bargain  for 
all  concerned.  Under  a  judicious  system  of  low 
fares  a  heavy  traffic  was  speedily  built  up  and  in 
1900 — the  latest  year  for  which  I  have  returns — 
the  profits  were  sufficient  to  pay  a  dividend  of 
4  per  cent,  on  the  total  capital. 

This  pioneer  railway  was  the  foreshadowing  of 
a  far  more  ambitious  scheme  in  the  shape  of  a 
line  starting  from  Fusan  and  running  through  the 
heart  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  peninsula  and 
up  the  west  coast  to  Seoul.  Several  leading  local 
centres  are  embraced  in  the  project ;  but  its  most 
important  advantage  is  that  it  supplies  a  direct  and 
speedy  means  of  communication  between  the  Korean 
and  the  Japanese  capitals.  When  the  work  is  com- 
plete the  traveller  will  be  carried  from  Chemulpo  or 
Seoul  to  Tokio  in  forty-four  hours,  as  against  the 
four  or  five  days  now  consumed  by  the  journey. 
The  line,  like  its  smaller  predecessor,  though 
nominally  a  private  concern,  is  actually  a  Japanese 
Government  affair.  The  concern  is  capitalised  to 
the  extent  of  ;^2, 500,000  or  ;i{^3 ,000,000,  fully  paid 
up,  and  it  is  operated  on  much  the  same  conditions 
as  the  Seoul-Chemulpo  line,  which,  by  the  way,   it 


84  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

has  absorbed.  Commenced  in  1901,  and  rapidly 
prosecuted  with  a  view,  doubtless,  to  contingencies 
which  have  since  arisen,  the  scheme  is  now  well 
in  hand.  It  will  probably  be  of  immense  service 
in  the  occupation  by  the  Japanese  of  the  southern 
districts  of  their  new  protectorate,  and  possibly 
may  help  in  the  transmission  of  supplies  to  their 
army  in  the  north. 

The  "  policy  of  peaceful  penetration  "  has,  how- 
ever, not  been  allowed  to  end  with  this  notable 
enterprise.  A  body  of  French  concessionaires^ 
at  or  about  the  time  that  the  Seoul-Fusan 
railway  was  undertaken,  secured  the  right  to 
construct  a  line  from  the  capital  to  Wiju  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Yalu,  via  Ping- Yang.  For  a  time 
the  enterprise  languished  for  want  of  capital,  and  a 
Russian  financier,  backed,  no  doubt,  by  his  Govern- 
ment, came  forward  with  an  offer  to  take  over  the 
responsibility.  The  Korean  Government,  prompted, 
we  may  assume,  by  the  astute  Japanese,  refused, 
however,  to  allow  the  offer  to  be  entertained,  on 
the  ground  that  they  themselves  contemplated 
undertaking  the  work.  Subsequently  there  were 
some  mysterious  negotiations,  culminating,  according 
to  the  latest  accounts,  in  the  vesting  of  the  control 
either  directly  or  indirectly  in  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment. Thus  the  power  which  aspires  to  be  para- 
mount  in    Korea  has  got  into  its   own   hands   the 


British  Trade  in  Korea  85 

whole  of  the  railway  enterprise  of  the  country,  and  by 
so  doing  has  laid  the  foundations  of  a  system  which 
must  inevitably  constitute  a  valuable  element  in  the 
consolidation  of  its  power  in  Korea,  and  at  the  same 
time  furnish  an  important  means  of  land  communi- 
cation between  Japan  and  the  Chinese  mainland. 

In  the  construction  of  these  lines  British  manu- 
facturers are  playing  a  leading  part.  The  rails  are 
supplied  by  the  Barrow-Hematite  Company,  and 
other  portions  of  the  material  have  come  from 
Great  Britain.  Some  early  orders  for  locomotives 
went  to  America,  but  only  because  British  manu- 
facturers were  unable  to  supply  them  within  a  reason- 
able time.  More  recently  other  orders  have  been 
placed  in  Sheffield.  In  the  long  run,  probably  in 
this  department,  as  in  others,  the  trade  of  this 
country  will  benefit  by  Korean  railway  development 
as  the  superior  endurance  of  the  British  type  of 
locomotive  is  recognised,  and  the  Japanese  are 
thoroughly  well  aware  that  quality  is  of  the  first  im- 
portance in  such  matters.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  our  manufacturers  have  powerful 
rivals  in  the  field  and  that  if  orders  are  to  be 
secured,  there  must  be  no  missing  of  chances.  The 
country  which  first  gets  a  footing  in  a  market 
obtains  a  substantial  advantage  which  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  combat,  no  matter  how  superior  the 
goods  offered  by  the  late  comer  may  be. 


86  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

Naturally  in  the  case  of  Korea  there  are  few 
data  upon  which  to  build  theories  as  to  trade 
possibilities.  Commerce,  as  we  understand  the 
term,  is  in  its  infancy,  and  the  only  available  in- 
formation is  contained  in  the  customs  returns, 
which  in  some  respects  are  not  too  reliable,  owing 
to  the  loose  methods  of  Government.  Such  as  they 
are,  the  statistics,  however,  make  it  perfectly  clear 
that  for  Lancashire  cotton  goods  Korea  offers  an 
excellent  market.  The  character  of  national  dress 
necessitates  an  extensive  use  of  the  finer  sorts  of 
cotton  manufactures  such  as  are  classified  under  this 
description,  and  British  productions  well  hold  their 
own  in  the  face  of  strong  Japanese  and  German 
competition.  When  money  circulates  more  freely, 
as  it  will  do  when  the  political  atmosphere  clears, 
a  great  impetus,  it  may  be  anticipated,  will  be  given 
to  this  branch  of  trade.  Not  less  strongly  will  be 
influenced  the  market  for  the  smaller  accessories 
of  agriculture.  The  natives  are  now  wedded  to 
old  implements  and  old  methods,  because  they  have 
not  the  opportunity  or  the  means  of  purchasing 
Western  inventions.  Their  appliances  are  now  of 
the  most  primitive  and  labour-wasting  type.  On 
this  point  let  Mr.  Campbell  speak  from  the  fulness 
of  his  knowledge  : 

**  A  plough  is  used  to  till  the  ground,  and  a 
huge    shovel,  wielded    by  three   or   five   men — one 


Korean  Agriculture  87 

guiding  it  by  the  long  handle,  the  others  on  either 
side  straining  or  jerking  it  with  ropes  attached  to 
the  blade — to  break  turf.  The  other  implements 
in  common  use  are  a  sharp-pointed  hoe,  which 
fills  the  place  of  spade,  hoe,  and  shovel,  a  reaping- 
hook,  a  wooden  barrow,  and  a  bamboo  rake.  Rice 
is  threshed  by  seizing  a  wisp  in  both  hands  and 
beating  the  grain  out  over  a  log  or  board  ;  or,  in 
the  case  of  poor  people,  each  head  is  taken 
separately,  and  the  ears  scraped  off  with  a  knife. 
Other  cereals  as  well  as  beans  and  pulse  are  dealt 
with  by  flails,  the  threshing-floor  as  often  as  not 
being  the  public  road.  Winnowing  is  done  by 
throwing  the  grain  up  in  the  wind.  The  hulling 
of  rice  is  accomplished  with  a  stone  quern,  as  is  the 
grinding  of  flour.  For  these  purposes  the  *  Pang- 
a,'  worked  by  the  hand,  by  the  foot,  or  by  water, 
is  also  used.  The  hand  '  Pang-a '  is  a  wooden 
mortar,  usually  2  ft.  of  tree  trunk  hollowed  at  one 
end,  in  which  the  grain  is  pounded  with  a  heavy 
iron  hammer.  In  the  foot  *  Pang-a '  a  weighty 
timber,  fitted  with  a  wooden  peg  for  a  pestle,  is  so 
balanced  that  a  slight  pressure  raises  the  peg  end 
a  few  feet  above  a  rough  granite  mortar,  which  is 
bedded  in  the  ground  to  receive  it.  The  *  Mul '  or 
water  *  Pang-a '  is  the  same  instrument  provided 
with  a  trough,  into  which  a  runlet  of  water  from 
the  nearest  stream  is  diverted  ;  when  full,  the  trough 


88  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

descends,  empties,  and  the  pestle  then  falls  with 
considerable  force  on  the  grain  beneath.  In  some 
places  one  sees  as  many  as  a  dozen  of  these  *  Mul- 
pang-a '  worked  by  the  same  stream." 

In  this  interesting  passage  we  are  afforded  a 
vivid  glimpse  of  the  rude  methods  which  obtain 
in  Korean  agriculture.  Hitherto  they  have  served 
all  the  purposes  of  the  native  with  his  limited 
aspirations  and  his  not  less  limited  market.  But 
under  the  stimulating  influence  of  prosperity,  follow- 
ing upon  the  extension  of  railways,  the  Korean 
will  develop  new  wants  which  he  will  find  it 
possible  to  satisfy.  Such  things  as  milling  machinery, 
pumps,  and  steam  engines  will  then  come  well 
within  his  ken  ;  and  it  is  even  conceivable  that  his 
natural  curiosity  and  love  of  novelty  will  carry  him 
so  far  as  to  patronise  the  agencies  which  minister  to 
the  refinements  of  civilisation  in  towns  where  there 
is  a  Japanese  or  foreign  element  to  give  the  lead. 

How  thoroughly  the  Korean  is  able  to  appreciate 
the  most  modern  creations  of  the  West  is  shown 
by  the  history  of  the  electric  tramway  in  Seoul. 
When  the  enterprise  was  first  started  it  was  regarded 
almost  in  the  light  of  an  invention  of  the  evil 
one.  The  accidental  running  over  of  several 
children  confirmed  the  early  impression.  The 
Koreans  forthwith  rose  in  their  wrath  and  attempted 
to  make  matchwood  of  the  cars.     They  did  a  good 


Progress  in  Korea  89 

deal  of  damage  before  the  riot  was  quelled,  but 
ultimately  they  sullenly  acquiesced  in  the  resumption 
of  traffic.  Soon  they  discovered  that  the  tramway 
had  its  attractions.  The  cars  were  increasingly 
patronised,  until  it  was  quite  a  common  thing  to 
see  heavy  freights  of  natives  doing  the  grand  tour 
of  the  city.  Now  I  am  assured  by  a  recent  visitor 
to  Seoul  the  inhabitants  spend  a  greater  part  of 
their  earnings  in  the  (to  them)  fascinating  amusement 
of  riding  about  the  streets.  The  cars  are,  it  may 
be  stated,  in  charge  of  natives,  who  make  admirable 
drivers.  [.They  are  intelligent  and  thoroughly 
careful,  and;  are,  moreover,  civil  and  obliging. 

It  will,  I  think,  be  of  interest  to  watch  the  process 
of  civilisation  upon  these  people.  They  have  much 
of  the  natural  quickness  of  the  Japanese,  and  are 
so  eminently  teachable  that  with  proper  guidance 
they  may  reach  a  high  stage  of  development.  I 
have  quoted  in  an  earlier  chapter  the  opinion  of  a 
gentleman,  who  is  intimately  acquainted  with  their 
characteristics,  that  they  are  a  "  brainy  "  people.  I 
may  add  here  that  their  past  shows  that  they  have 
the  gift  of  originality.  The  creation  of  the  Satsuma 
School  of  Pottery  is  only  one  of  the  achievements 
traditionally  placed  to  their  account.  It  is  claimed 
for  them,  with  what  amount  of  truth  I  will  not 
pretend  to  say,  that  they  practised  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder   before    the    process  was    known    to 


90  Far-Eastern  Impressions 

the  Chinese.  They  are  also  said  to  have  been  the 
first  nation  to  use  the  ironclad  in  marine  warfare. 
Their  protected  "  man-of-war  "  was,  it  is  true,  but 
a  native  barge  sheathed  with  iron  in  order  to  more 
effectually  cope  with  Chinese  junks,  against  which 
it  was  pitted  in  some  warlike  operations  about  a 
century  ago.  Still,  the  idea  showed  that  the 
people  were  endowed  with  more  than  common 
inventiveness,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  this  quality  has  not  been  entirely  eradicated 
by  the  deadening  influences  under  which  they 
have  so  long  lived. 

I  have  wandered  somewhat  from  the  theme  of  my 
chapter,  but  it  seems  to  me  that  the  question  of  the 
intellectual  capacity  of  the  Koreans  has  a  not  un- 
important bearing  on  the  prospects  of  trade  in  the 
country.  Though  there  are,  as  I  have  said,  no 
manufactures  in  Korea  now,  it  is  clear  that  there 
exists,  in  the  abundance  of  cheap  and  intelligent 
labour  which  the  peninsula  supplies,  ample  material 
for  the  building  up  of  industries  under  foreign 
tutelage.  A  beginning  in  this  direction  has  actually 
been  made  by  the  starting  at  Chemulpo  of  an 
enterprise  for  the  manufacture,  from  a  blend  of 
American  and  Korean  tobacco,  of  cigarettes  of  three 
kinds.  It  is  a  British  concern,  registered  at  Hong 
Kong,  and  employs  nearly  a  thousand  hands.  The 
machinery  (I  give  these  particulars  from  the  Con- 


Korean  Currency  91 

sular  report)  is  capable  of  turning  out  a  million 
cigarettes  per  diem.  So  far,  the  export  duty  of 
5  per  cent,  enforced  by  the  Government  has  militated 
against  the  success  of  the  company's  operations  ;  but 
in  spite  of  that,  the  business  done  is  an  increasing 
one  and  there  is  every  hope  that  the  plucky  venture 
will  firmly  establish  itself.  If  it  does,  we  may  be 
sure  that  it  will  not  long  stand  alone.  Korea  is  well 
situated  for  the  production  of  tobacco  and,  with  a 
proper  system  of  cultivation  and  modern  methods 
of  preparing  the  goods  for  the  market,  it  might  be 
able  to  carve  out  a  distinct  place  for  itself  amongst 
the  tobacco-producing  countries  of  the  world. 

A  heavy  handicap  to  Korean  trade  exists  in  the 
anomalous  condition  of  the  currency  of  the  country. 
The  amazing  Government,  which  is  ready  to  put  up 
to  auction  the  highest  interests  of  the  nation,  some 
little  time  since,  for  temporary  financial  advantage, 
conceived  the  brilliant  idea  of  establishing  a  nickel 
currency  as  a  substitute  for  the  '*  cash "  (small 
shells)  which  hitherto  had  served  all  the  modest 
requirements  of  the  inhabitants.  Acting  upon  its 
inspiration,  it  proceeded  to  flood  the  country  with  a 
nickel  coinage,  whose  intrinsic  value  was  only  one- 
eighteenth  its  face  value.  It  was  quite  unsupported 
by  any  gold  or  silver  reserve,  and  the  natural  con- 
sequence was  that  the  newly  introduced  coinage 
fell  rapidly  in   actual   value  as  against  the  Japanese 


95t  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

gold  yen,  which  is  the  recognised  standard  of  value 

where  foreign  goods  are  concerned.     The  efforts  of 

the  Government  to  popularise  the  coin  by  insisting 

that    the    land    tax   should    be    paid    with    it    only 

accentuated    the    deplorable    effects    of  the    policy 

adopted.     To    make    matters   worse,    the    opening 

offered  to  the  fraudulent  by  the  introduction  of  so 

loose  a  system  led  to  the  importation  of  counterfeit 

nickels  from  Japan  and  elsewhere,  with  the  certain 

consequence  that  values  were  further   depreciated. 

To  what  a  pitch  matters  have  come  may  be  judged 

from  the  report  for  1901   of  Mr.  Goff,  in  which  it 

is  stated  that  at  that  port  quotations  are  current  for 

(i)  Government  nickels  ;  (2)  first-class  counterfeits  ; 

(3)   medium   counterfeits ;    and    (4)   those  passable 

only  after  dark.     The  last-mentioned  description  is 

delicious.     Surely  never  out  of  a  Bedlamite   State 

has  there  ever  been  an  established  market  for  spurious 

coinage  !    Comic  as  the  situation  is,  it  has  its  serious 

side.    The  whole  operations  of  trade  are  disorganised 

by  these  irregularities.     Conscious   of  the  mischief 

done,  the  Japanese  Government,  at  the  end  of  1902, 

issued    an    Imperial    Ordinance   with    a    view    to 

deterring  its  subjects  from  making  spurious  coin  for 

the    Korean   market.     Severe    penalties   were    laid 

down   for    infractions    of    the    edict.     The    action 

produced  some  remarkable  results.     One  haul  made 

was  of  739,000  pieces  of  counterfeit  coin,  and  in 


Korean  Telegraphs  93 

a  second  case  530,000  pieces  were  confiscated.  The 
captures,  however,  were,  it  was  believed,  only  a 
tithe  of  the  coin  actually  sent  forward.  The 
business  is  an  exceptionally  profitable  one,  and  it  has 
become  quite  an  industry.  Nothing  but  an  entire 
re-modelling  of  the  currency  system  upon  a  proper 
basis  will  remove  the  evil,  and  that  is  hardly  to  be 
looked  for — immediately  at  all  events.  Meanwhile, 
a  heavy  weight  is  placed  upon  legitimate  trade  by 
the  system. 

A  factor  of  considerable  importance  in  the  trade 
development  of  Korea  is  the  telegraph  system, 
which,  though  introduced  only  a  few  years  since, 
has  wide  ramifications  throughout  the  country.  Up 
to  the  end  of  1901 — the  latest  year  for  which 
official  statistics  are  available — there  were  2,170 
miles  of  line,  of  which  474  had  been  added  to 
the  system  in  the  previous  twelve  months.  There 
were,  at  the  time  the  returns  were  compiled, 
twenty-seven  stations,  these  including  nearly  every 
important  centre  from  Echow  and  Kiongoung  in 
the  north  to  Masampo  and  Fusan  in  the  south. 
Though  as  yet  in  its  infancy,  the  department  has 
excellent  results  to  show.  During  1901  as  many 
as  152,485  telegrams  were  sent  over  the  wires, 
and  the  receipts  reached  the  respectable  sum  of 
^8,300.  This  amount  does  not  cover  the  whole  of 
the   working  expenses ;   but    there   was  before   the 


94  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

war  every  prospect  that  with  careful  management 
the  system  would  yield  a  profit  to  the  Imperial 
revenue.  In  this,  as  in  other  matters  affecting  the 
government  of  Korea,  it  is  useless  to  speculate  as 
to  what  may  happen  after  the  present  military 
operations  are  concluded  ;  but  at  least  we  may 
assume  that  whoever  are  the  ultimate  masters  of 
the  country,  the  system  will  have  its  place  in  the 
revised  scheme  of  government,  to  the  advantage 
of  trade. 

In  dealing  with  the  question  of  Korean  trade  it 
is  impossible  not  to  make  prominent  mention  of 
the  apathy  displayed  by  the  British  ship-owning 
interest  in  this  part  of  the  world.  Though  the 
commerce  of  the  country  is  rapidly  increasing,  as 
I  have  shown,  the  British  merchant's  flag  is  rarely 
seen  in  Korean  ports.  The  bulk  of  the  over-sea 
trade  is  monopolised  by  Japan,  which  in  1902 
claimed  877,193  tons  of  the  total  steam  tonnage 
of  1,160,895  recorded.  Korea  herself  came  next, 
with  165,782  tons,  and  then  Russia,  with  101,222 
tons.  Great  Britain — a  very  long  way  down  on  the 
list — is  represented  by  an  insignificant  11,998 
tons.  When  it  is  recalled  that  the  British  flag 
was  at  one  time,  and  that  not  very  long  since, 
supreme  in  these  seas,  one  cannot  but  regret  that 
greater  efforts  should  not  be  made  to  capture  this 
most  promising   market,   or  at  least  to  get  a  sub- 


Korean  Finance  95 

stantial  share  in  it.  Japan,  no  doubt,  has  special 
political  reasons  for  pushing  her  trade,  and  our 
ships  could  not  hope  to  oust  her  heavily  subsidised 
lines.  But  a  direct  service  in  co-operation  with 
them  would  have  a  good  prospect  of  being  made 
a  financial  success.  Such,  at  all  events,  is  the 
view  of  Mr.  A.  H.  Hay,  the  British  Vice-Consul 
at  Chemulpo,  whose  opinion  is  entitled  to  great 
weight. 

It  must  always  be  a  source  of  patriotic  pride 
to  the  Briton  that  to  one  of  his  countrymen  belongs 
the  credit  of  evolving  at  least  a  semblance  of  order 
out  of  financial  chaos  in  Korea  and  bringing  the 
trade  of  the  country  to  its  present  condition  of 
comparative  prosperity.  The  gentleman  referred 
to  as  being  entitled  to  this  honour  is  Mr. 
J.  McLeavy  Brown,  the  chief  of  the  Korean 
Customs.  Mr.  Brown  is  one  of  that  class  of 
administrators  who  in  distant  lands,  under  dis- 
couraging conditions,  win  honourable  distinction 
for  themselves  and  add  to  the  British  reputation  for 
success  in  the  practical  arts  of  Government.  He 
served  his  apprenticeship  under  Sir  Robert  Hart 
in  the  Chinese  maritime  Customs,  and  was  selected 
by  that  eminent  man  for  his  present  office.  The 
work  entrusted  to  him  was  of  enormous  difficulty 
and  complexity.  It  was  nothing  less  than  the 
creation  of  a  fiscal  system  on  the  rotten   basis   of 


96  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

an  efFete  Eastern  despotism.  Though  opposed  and 
thwarted  at  every  turn,  the  object  of  virulent  in- 
trigues emanating  from  both  foreign  and  native 
sources,  he  has  steadily  persevered  with  his  thankless 
task,  with  the  consequence  that  Korea  now  possesses  a 
system  which,  if  allowed  free  scope  and  fair  play, 
would  bring  stability  to  the  country's  finances.  A  man 
of  great  strength  of  character,  absolutely  incorruptible, 
and  resolutely  opposed  to  all  acts  which  would  have 
the  effect  of  circumscribing  the  legitimate  functions 
of  Government,  he  has  made  many  enemies,  and 
attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  evict 
him  from  his  office.  Happily  in  this  matter  our 
Government  have  taken  up  a  strong  attitude. 
Recognising  that  the  removal  of  Mr.  Brown  would 
be  highly  detrimental  to  British  interests,  the 
British  Consul-General  has  invariably  extended  to 
him  support  in  the  successive  struggles  in  which  he 
has  been  engaged.  This  diplomatic  intervention 
has  more  than  once  saved  the  situation.  So  we 
find  Mr.  Brown  still  at  his  post,  doggedly  combating 
the  malign  influences  which  flourish  in  the  un- 
healthy atmosphere  of  Seoul,  and  endeavouring  by 
persistent  effort  to  establish  some  sort  of  equilibrium 
in  the  finances.  That  he  may  long  remain  in  that 
position  is  the  sincere  desire  of  every  well-wisher 
of  Korea. 


A  SCENE  IN    A    KOREAN    VILLAGE. 


KOREAN   VILLAGERS. 


[To  fact  p.  96 


THE    ECHUN    MINE,    KOREA:    NATIVES  CLEANING   ORE. 


KOREAN    NATIVE   MINING  :   CRUSHING   ORE. 


[To  face  p.  97. 


CHAPTER    VI 

KOREAN    MINING — NATIVE    METHODS — FOREIGN     MINING    CON- 
CESSIONS— JAPANESE   COMMERCIAL   POLICY 

IN  dealing  with  the  trade  aspects  of  Korea  I 
have  left  to  the  last,  for  description  in  a  special 
chapter,  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country,  which 
constitute  decidedly  the  most  conspicuous  element 
of  potential  commercial  wealth.  So  little,  com- 
paratively speaking,  of  the  country  has  yet  been 
scientifically  surveyed  that  it  is  impossible  to  speak 
with  confidence  as  to  the  exact  character  of  these 
resources,  or  even  to  define  with  geographical  pre- 
cision the  localities  which  may  be  expected  to  yield 
a  return  to  the  operations  of  the  miner.  But  of 
the  existence  of  rich  deposits  of  minerals  of  various 
kinds  in  wide  tracts  of  the  country  in  Northern, 
Central,  and  Southern  Korea  there  is  no  sort  of  doubt. 
For  centuries  gold-mining  has  been  carried  on  by 
Koreans  in  rude  fashion.  They  have  worked  at 
the  business  intermittently  and  unsystematically,  and, 
moreover,  under  the  paralysing  influences  of  a  Govern- 
ment which  has  always  exacted  the  heaviest  possible 

97  7 


98  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

toll  from  the  miner's  operations  and,  beyond  that, 
has  thrown  obstacles  in  his  path.  Yet  from  a  time 
"  to  which  the  memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the 
contrary  "  there  has  been  a  steady  stream  of  gold 
dust  flowing  out  of  the  country.  Much  of  the 
fertilising  current  was  diverted  to  Japan.  Indeed, 
it  is  believed  that  until  that  country  was  opened 
up  to  the  trade  of  the  world,  she  derived  her  entire 
supplies  of  the  precious  metal  from  Korea,  since 
she  herself  has  no  gold-mines.  In  more  recent 
times  gold  dust  has  been  a  popular  medium  of 
barter.  Korean  merchants  have  exchanged  it  for 
foreign  goods  at  the  coast  ports,  notably  Wonsan 
and  Fusan,  and  the  articles  obtained  by  the 
transaction  have  filtered  back  to  the  mining  localities 
to  give  a  fresh  incentive  to  toil.  The  amount  of 
these  exports  is  largely  a  matter  of  speculation,  as 
the  customs  returns  are  notoriously  unreliable,  owing 
to  the  amount  of  smuggling  that  goes  on.  But 
that  it  must  be  very  considerable  is  clearly  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  in  1902  the  exports  officially  re- 
corded reached  the  high  figure  of  ^^  500,000. 

Natives  claim  that  practically  the  whole  of  Korea 
is  auriferous.  That  is  an  expansive  way  of  present- 
ing the  question  which  will  not  bear  examination. 
It  is  an  undoubted  fact,  however,  that  there  are 
many  districts  in  which  gold  exists  in  considerable 
quantities.     Mr.  Campbell  tells  the  story  of  a  man 


Native  Mining  99 

he  met  with  at  a  place  south  of  Samsu,  on  a  tributary 
of  the  Yalu,  who  varied  his  occupation  of  ferryman 
by  washing  for  gold  on  the  river  bank.  On  the 
discovery  of  the  gold,  he  had  taken  up  the  work 
casually,  and  no  one  appeared  to  be  excited  over 
the  matter,  though  there  was  a  large  village  across 
the  stream,  with  many  able-bodied  men  lounging 
about  in  indigent  idleness.  The  Government  re- 
strictions, which,  as  I  have  said,  are  very  onerous, 
may  have  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  the  apparent 
lack  of  interest ;  but  it  is  Hkely  that  the  main  reason 
was  that  the  Koreans  were  too  ignorant  to  realise 
all  that  the  possession  of  mineral  wealth  implied. 

Native  mining  in  Korea  is  for  the  most  part 
of  the  "  placer "  type.  Small  mines  employing  at 
most  five  hundred  men  are  the  rule.  They  are 
worked  by  gangs  of  about  a  dozen  men  on  a  simple 
system  which  Mr.  Campbell  describes.  "  Three  or 
four  of  the  band,"  he  says,  "  loosen  the  soil  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pit — I  saw  none  more  than  15  ft. 
deep  ;  two  or  three  pass  it  up  in  baskets  to  the 
surface,  a  couple  are  constantly  engaged  baling 
water  into  the  sluice,  and  the  remainder  take  their 
ease  above  until  it  is  their  turn  to  relieve  the 
people  at  work.  The  gold-bearing  clay  *  is  then 
carried  to  a  washing-hole,  where    the  panners  deal 

*  Mr,  Campbell's  observation  was  at  fault  here.    I  am  told  by  an  expert 
that  the  soil  is  not  clay,  but  largely  gravel. 


loo  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

with  it.  I  have  it  on  the  authority  of  an  old 
Californian  miner  that  the  Korean  panners  handle 
their  wooden  bowls  with  uncommon  dexterity,  and 
allow  very  little  '  dust '  to  escape  them.  In  many 
other  ways  the  Korean  miners  show  the  fruits  of 
long  experience,  but  their  hete  noire,  water,  is,  and 
has  always  been,  an  insoluble  problem.  Pump- 
ing appliances  are  unknown,  and  for  want  of  them 
the  deeper  and  presumably  richer  deposits  are  every- 
where untouched.  The  water  has  only  to  overcome 
the  baling  capacity  of  a  couple  of  pails,  and  with 
a  *  hal  su  opso '  (no  help  for  it),  the  gang  betakes 
itself  to  fresh  ground,  with  the  sad  consciousness 
that  the  claim  it  has  left  retains  most  of  its  riches. 
Of  course,  '  tail-races,'  and  elaborate  ones,  too,  are 
constructed  wherever  the  nature  of  the  ground 
permits,  but  they  soon  become  unmanageable  and 
have  to  be  abandoned." 

It  may  be  gathered  from  this  description  that 
native  mining  in  Korea  is  conducted  on  principles 
which  do  not  permit  of  a  fair  judgment  being 
formed  upon  the  results  of  the  true  resources  of 
the  country.  It  may  be,  as  is  somewhat  widely 
supposed,  that  the  gold  deposits  are  irregular  and 
by  no  means  continuous  ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
quite  possible  that  more  substantial  results  have  not 
been  obtained  in  particular  mines  worked  by  natives 
because  of  the  unscientific  principles  on  which  they 


American  Concession  loi 

conduct  their  operations.  The  point  is  likely  soon 
to  be  decided,  if  it  has  not  already  been  settled. 
Mining  on  approved  Western  principles  is  now 
being  prosecuted  in  two  wide  tracts  of  country — 
one  of  which  is  controlled  by  an  American,  another 
by  a  British  company.  Both  these  enterprises  are 
the  product  of  the  peculiar  system  which  obtains  in 
Korea,  under  which  the  Government  gives  for  a 
consideration  more  or  less  substantial  trading  or 
other  rights. 

The  American  concessionaires  were  first  in  the  field. 
They  secured  the  right  some  five  or  six  years  ago  to 
develop  the  mineral  resources  of  a  large  area  some 
eight  hundred  square  miles  in  extent  at  Un  San, 
a  district  in  the  north  bordering  on  the  Yalu. 
Proceeding  to  work  with  characteristic  energy,  they 
soon  had  their  mining  operations  well  in  hand. 
From  time  to  time  the  plant  was  increased,  until  at 
the  present  moment,  I  understand,  they  have  no 
fewer  than  two  hundred  stamps  working  in  their 
various  mines,  which  give  employment  to  about 
3,400  Korean  labourers,  from  two  hundred  to 
three  hundred  Chinese,  and  thirty  to  seventy 
Japanese.  The  natives  receive  wages  ranging  from 
%d.  to  IS,  2d.  per  day — handsome  remuneration 
for  a  country  where  the  cost  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  is  very  small.  Excellent  results  have 
already    been    obtained    by    the    enterprise,    which 


I02  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

works  under  the  designation  of  the  Oriental  Con- 
solidated Mining  Company.  Its  output  in  1901 
was  ^150,000  of  gold,  and  the  amount  was  largely 
exceeded  in  the  two  subsequent  years.  A  circum- 
stance which  has  tended  to  promote  the  success  of 
the  undertaking  is  the  existence  of  deep  water 
communication  to  a  point  within  twelve  miles  of  the 
chief  camp.  Ships  with  mining  machinery  are  thus 
able  to  unload  their  cargoes  almost  in  the  heart  of 
the  concession,  and  in  this  way  the  delays  and  heavy 
expenditure  frequently  encountered  where  mining 
is  prosecuted  in  new  countries  are  almost  entirely 
avoided. 

Though  with  a  smaller  area  under  its  control,  the 
British  concession  at  Eun  San  is  one  of  consider- 
able promise.  It  was  obtained  originally  by  Mr. 
Pritchard  Morgan,  and  was  disposed  of  by  the 
syndicate  which  he  represented  in  the  latter  part 
of  1900  to  a  company  registered  under  the  title 
of  the  British  and  Korean  Corporation.  Starting 
operations  in  1901,  the  company  has  already  well 
established  itself  in  its  territory.  According  to  the 
latest  accounts,  there  are  from  eight  hundred  to  a 
thousand  Koreans  employed  upon  the  workings. 
The  early  discovery  of  a  coal-seam  aroused  high 
expectations,  as,  the  country  here  being  almost 
treeless,  all  fuel  for  steam  purposes  would  in  ordinary 
circumstances   have    to    be    imported    from    Japan. 


German  Concession  103 

Unfortunately  the  results  of  subsequent  investiga- 
tions have  not  been  very  encouraging.  Generally 
speaking,  however,  the  prospects  of  the  concession 
are  good.  A  third,  a  German  concession,  exists  at 
Tong  Ko  Kai.  Its  working  has  for  the  most  part 
been  confined  to  "  placer "  mining.  It  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  a  brilliant  success  ;  in  fact,  the 
latest  accounts  represent  that  work  upon  the  mines 
has  been  abandoned. 

Attempts  have  been  made  at  different  times  to 
add  to  the  number  of  concessions,  but  the  Korean 
Government,  suddenly  fired  with  caution,  resolutely 
declined  to  entertain  any  further  proposals.  "  One 
country  one  concession "  was  its  motto,  and  all 
applicants  were  sent  empty-handed  away,  though  it 
was  certain  that  had  their  applications  been  enter- 
tained they  would  have  brought  a  rich  grist  to  the 
Government  mill  in  the  shape  of  rents,  and,  in 
addition,  enormously  benefited  the  country  by  giving 
steady  and  lucrative  employment  to  large  numbers 
of  natives.  The  oudook  does  not  offer  any  great 
hope  of  a  change  of  policy  being  effected  in  the 
near  future.  Even  if  the  war  is  over  sooner  than 
is  expected,  it  is  very  unlikely  that  circumstances 
will  be  such  that  mining  development  will  be 
possible  to  any  great  extent  outside  the  existing 
areas.  At  all  events,  the  success  of  Japan  would 
not,    as  many    people    in   this  country   are    apt   to 


I04  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

suppose,  be  of  a  certainty  a  good  thing  for  foreign 
mining  enterprise.  The  Japanese  have  long  had 
their  eyes  on  the  mineral  resources  of  Korea,  and 
probably  if  they  could  have  had  their  way  they 
would  not  have  permitted  them  to  be  mortgaged 
even  to  the  extent  that  they  have  been.  Once  their 
supremacy  is  secured,  they  will,  if  they  are  not  sadly 
misjudged,  proceed  to  apply  to  Korea  the  mining 
regulations  which  obtain  in  Japan.  These  are  so 
framed  that  operations  by  foreign  peoples  are  im- 
practicable. Of  course,  it  would  be  possible  to 
secure  by  diplomatic  negotiation  some  assurance  that 
the  door  would  not  thus  be  slammed  in  the  face 
of  the  foreign  mine  developer,  and  this  is  a  point 
of  which  our  Government  ought  not  to  lose  sight. 
But  taking  the  position  as  it  presents  itself  at  the 
moment,  there  is  a  decided  disposition  in  mining 
circles  associated  with  the  Far  East  to  view  with 
some  misgiving  the  prospect  of  the  extension  of 
Japanese  rule  to  Korea,  and  to  compare  the  fate 
which  would  probably  be  meted  out  to  companies 
under  the  Mikado's  sway  with  the  liberal  treat- 
ment which,  judging  from  the  experience  of  the 
Siberian  mines,  they  might  confidently  look  for 
from  Russia. 

The  general  tenor  of  the  Russian  mining  law, 
I  may  remark,  is  extremely  liberal.  There  are 
a  number  of  small  taxes,  but  they  do  not  amount 


Russian  Mining  Laws  105 

to  much  in  the  aggregate.  In  the  administration 
of  the  regulations  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
officialism.  It  amounts,  however,  to  very  little,  so 
far  as  a  British  or  foreign  company  is  concerned. 
It  arises  chiefly  under  the  old  mining  system,  where 
the  mines  were  principally  *'  placer "  diggings 
worked  by  the  natives  on  a  small  scale.  The 
acquisition  of  mining  rights,  except  on  thf  east 
coast,  is  practically  open  to  foreigners  equally  with 
Russians.  The  gold  tax — that  at  one  time  was 
made  so  much  of,  and  which  amounts  to  3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  gold — was  really  a  tax  for  the 
better  protection  of  gold  and  to  prevent  its  theft. 
It  has  for  various  reasons  been  repealed.  A  new 
mining  code  has  come  into  operation  in  Russia 
this  year  and  has  been  specially  drafted  to  deal 
with  the  working  of  mines  on  modern  lines.  The 
old  code,  framed,  as  it  was,  particularly  for  alluvial 
or  "  placer  "  mines,  was  not  very  applicable  in  the 
case  of  lode-mining. 

This  question  of  the  Japanese  attitude  towards 
foreign  trade  is  one  of  supreme  importance,  and  it 
may  not  be  without  advantage,  before  leaving  Korea, 
to  glance  at  some  of  the  bearings  of  the  subject 
in  the  light  of  experience  as  well  as  of  the  settled 
principles  of  Japan's  commercial  pohcy.  In  the 
first  place  it  has  to  be  noted  that  Japan,  unlike  either 
China  or  Korea,  is  a  rigidly  Protectionist  country. 


io6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

While  the  Governments  of  the  two  last-named 
countries  are  content  with  moderate  dues  for 
revenue  purposes,  she  imposes  an  exceedingly  onerous 
tariff.  On  manufactured  goods  the  duties  are 
usually  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  ad  valorem^  and 
the  tendency,  as  her  ntw  tariff  introduced  last  year 
clearly  showed,  was  to  increase  rather  than  lighten 
the  burden,  especially  in  cases  where  products 
competing  with  those  of  her  new  industries  are 
involved.  Side  by  side  with  this  familiar  form 
of  Protection,  Japan,  as  I  have  already  indicated, 
maintains  in  the  regulations  against  foreign  owner- 
ship of  land  a  system  of  trade  exclusion  peculiarly 
her  own.  Free  trade  is,  in  fact,  an  expression 
unknown  in  the  Japanese  political  vocabulary. 
In  the  circumstances  traders  may  well  ask  themselves 
what  they  may  expect  from  an  extension  of  Japanese 
power  outside  the  limits  of  the  Mikado's  dominions 
Will  the  Japanese  shed  their  Protectionist  ideas  and 
inaugurate  a  new  era  in  which  foreign  trade  will 
have  an  equal  chance  with  Japanese,  or  will  they, 
adhering  steadfastly  to  a  considered  scheme  of 
expansion,  seek  to  create  exclusively  for  themselves 
new  markets  in  the  sphere  of  their  conquests  ^ 
I  have  no  desire  to  pose  as  a  prophet,  but  I  must 
say  that  it  seems  to  me  that  Japan  would  not  be 
true  to  her  traditions  if  she  did  not  pursue  the 
latter  course.     Political  considerations  may  restrain 


Japan's  Attitude  towards  Trade        107 

her,  but  certainly,  if  left  to  herself,  it  seems  inevitable 
that  she  should  give  the  trend  indicated  to  her 
external  policy.  This  consideration  should  make 
us  cautious  as  to  the  extent  to  which  we  commit 
ourselves  to  our  Japanese  allies.  It  is  one  thing 
to  "  keep  the  ring  "  for  them  ;  it  is  quite  another 
matter  to  aid  them  in  closing  markets  to  our  own 
commerce. 


CHAPTER    VII 

NOTES     OF     A     JOURNEY     INTO      THE     INTERIOR  —  HORSES     A 

GOVERNMENT      MONOPOLY KOREAN       HOUSES  —  NATIVE 

HOSPITALITY — CURIOSITY    OF    THE    KOREANS — PING    YANG 
AND    HUNG  JU — KIMSHI — POVERTY   OF   THE   COUNTRY. 

AS  I  have  before  stated,  I  had  not  myself  an 
opportunity  of  travelling  into  the  interior, 
but  a  well-known  mining  engineer,  who  went  out 
to  Korea  not  long  since  to  investigate  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  country  and  made  a  journey 
through  the  mining  districts,  has  kindly  placed 
at  my  disposal  some  notes  of  his  tour.  These  I 
now  reproduce,  in  the  confident  belief  that  my 
readers  will  be  interested  in  the  lively  picture  which 
the  writer  draws  of  Korean  travel. 

He  tells  very  pleasantly  the  story  of  his  early 
days  in  Korea,  with  his  calls  at  the  treaty  ports 
marked  by  agreeable  intercourse  with  the  cos- 
mopolitan society  which  centres  there.  He  also 
describes  his  sojourn  in  the  capital  and  the 
preparations  for  his  journey.  On  the  latter  point 
let  him  speak  for  himself: 

io8 


A  TRIP   UP-COUNTRY:    THE   START   FROM   SEOUL. 


ON   THE  ROAD. 


[To  face  p.  io8. 


KOREAN    VILLAGERS. 


KOREAN   CHILDREN. 


[To  face  p.  109. 


Up'country  Travelling  109 

"  For  the  purposes  of  my  journey  I  was  officially 
attached  to  the  Korean  Government  ;  consequently 
I  found  it  necessary  to  be  accompanied  by  the 
usual  ponderous  appendages  of  State  travel  in 
Korea,  which  included  many  interpreters  and 
secretaries,  each  in  his  turn  requiring  so  many 
servants.  Altogether  my  retinue  amounted  to  a 
considerable  number.  They  all  came  willingly 
enough,  anticipating,  I  believe,  quite  a  pleasant  little 
outing.  I  thought  six  hundred  or  seven  hundred 
miles  in  the  saddle  might  be  a  little  tiresome,  and 
I  suggested  it.  Oh  no  !  they  were  Koreans,  and 
said  they  were  quite  equal  to  what  was  expected  of 
them.  They  belittled  their  journey,  belittled  the 
hardships,  and  made  no  objection  to  a  scheduled 
rate  of  travel,  which  I  managed  to  agree  should  be 
the  maximum  that  they  admitted  their  wonderful 
Korean  horses  were  able  to  accomplish.  The  result 
was  that  the  schedule  was  adhered  to  ;  but  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  horses  got  through.  Events 
proved  that,  with  the  exception  of  five  Koreans, 
my  retinue  had  sisters  or  cousins  or  aunts  on  the 
road,  and  found  it  more  convenient  to  loiter.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  once  in  the  saddle,  and  having 
fairly  gauged  the  capabilities  of  the  party,  I  thought 
the  quickest  travel  was  to  leave  them  behind. 

"  All  up-country  travelling  in  Korea  has  to  be 
done  on  horseback,    as   the   roads,  or  what  passes 


no  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

for  them,  are  unfit  for  wheeled  vehicles,  and  chairs 
such  as  are  used  in  Seoul  are  out  of  the  question. 
Horses,   therefore,    were    our    first    consideration  in 
arranging   for    our  journey.     The  supply  available 
to  the    traveller   is  very    indifferent,   owing    to    the 
peculiar  system  which  obtains  of  making  the  breeding 
of  horses   a   Government  monopoly.      Under   this 
arrangement  the  Emperor  has  the   first  pick  of  all 
horses  bred  in  the  country.     When  he  has  satisfied 
his  requirements,  the  army  officers  make  a  selection 
for  remount   purposes.     Then    the  Ministers    have 
a  right  of  choice.     Finally,  the    public  are  allowed 
to  purchase.     But  by  this  time  the  horses  left  are 
for  the  most  part  sorry   screws,   which    are    worth 
very  little.     In  my  case  I  was   fortunate  in  having 
the  assistance  of  a   Japanese  agent,  who    promptly 
secured    for    me   an    adequate    number   of  horses. 
Altogether  we  required  no  fewer  than  thirty-eight 
animals,  the  bulk  of  them,  of  course,  for  my  train 
of  Government  officials.     Two,  however,  were    set 
apart  to    carry  the  indispensable    "  cash  " — an  old- 
fashioned     coin     approximating     to     the     Chinese 
medium    of  currency.     It  is  a  flat  piece  of  metal, 
with  a  square  hole  punched  in  the  middle.     There 
is    practically    no    other    currency    in    the    country 
away  from  the  towns,  or  was   not  at  the   time  of 
my  trip,  and  in  view  of  the  fact   that  as  many  as 
seven  hundred  of  these  coins  go  to  a  yen,  we  had 


The  Korean  Wayside  Inn  m 

to  take  two  whole  loads  with  us  ;  not  a  little 
responsibility  for  my  good  attendant  and  a  con- 
siderable inducement  to  robbers.  This  last-named 
consideration  had  great  weight  from  the  servants' 
point  of  view  ;  I  am  not  quite  sure,  indeed,  that 
one  or  two  of  our  train  would  not  have  liked  to 
become  the  bandits  themselves,  if  they  had  dared. 

'*  After  adjusting  the  loads,  fitting  the  saddles, 
muzzling  the  horses,  arranging  the  procession  (for 
the  custom  prevails  in  that  country  that  horses 
have  rights  of  precedence),  we  finally  got  away  at 
noon  instead  of  at  8  a.m.  and  made  a  short  trip. 
I  should  say  there  were  three  Europeans,  my  wife, 
myself,  and  an  assistant.  I  do  not  think  I  shall 
ever  forget  the  first  night  out,  passed  in  a  Korean 
mabong  or  roadside  hotel.  The  hotel  courtyard 
is  usually  from  20  to  30  ft.  square,  bounded  on 
three  sides  by  one-storied  Korean  houses,  or  built 
on  the  kang  system  ;  on  one  side  a  shed,  under 
which  the  Korean  ponies  are  tied. 

"  The  houses  are  hovels,  but  sometimes  a  fairly 
clean  room  may  be  found,  if  it  has  been  recently 
papered.  When  you  step  out  of  the  house,  you 
step  into  mud  or  filth,  for  the  courtyard  is  the 
common  receptacle  for  everything  that  is  not  wanted. 
In  a  corner  of  the  enclosure  under  a  shed,  the 
Korean  pony  squeals,  kicks,  bites,  and  snuffles  in 
a  trough  in  which  his  food  and  hot  water  have  been 


112  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

placed,  for  it  is  a  notable  peculiarity  of  Korean 
ponies  that  they  have  their  food  boiled,  this  in- 
volving a  long  delay,  and  ultimately  much  fighting 
for  the  few  remaining  beans  that  may  be  floating 
about  in  a  superfluity  of  water. 

"Travelling  in  state  as  we  did,  we  were  always 
given  the  best  rooms  to  ourselves  ;  but  even  these 
required  to  be  carefully  handled,  in  consequence 
of  the  multitudes  of  other  inhabitants.  However, 
with  the  aid  of  a  copious  supply  of  carbolic  acid, 
and  by  using  the  tarpaulin  in  which  our  beds 
were  packed,  which  we  made  to  serve  the  purpose 
of  floor-cloths,  we  managed  to  get  through  with 
comparative  freedom  from  attack. 

"  I  mentioned  the  kang.  The  floor  of  a  Korean 
house  is  a  nest  or  series  of  chimneys  or  ducts, 
through  which  the  products  of  combustion  from  a 
fire  or  kitchen  at  one  end  of  the  house  passes.  If 
a  good  fire  is  made,  the  kang  becomes  so  hot  that 
you  fairly  frizzle  and  once  the  fire  is  allowed  to 
go  out  you  get  very  cold.  There  is  no  means  of 
ventilation  except  by  cutting  a  hole  in  the  door 
(a  paper  door,  I  mean)  ;  so  we  had  to  choose 
between  being  cooked  or  cooled. 

**  We  had  taken  precautions  to  arrange  our  com- 
missariat independently  of  hotel  supplies,  with  the 
exception  of  eggs  and  chickens  and  what  we  could 
kill  ;  and  hence,  with  the  exception  of  one  evening. 


Incidents  of  Travel  113 

when  we  had  lost  our  way  and  had  to  fall  back 
on  Korean  food,  we  fared  fairly  well.  At  this 
time  of  the  year  game,  ducks,  and  geese  are  to 
be  had  for  the  killing  and  never  were  we  short 
of  the  most  delicious  pheasants.  For  the  accom- 
modation of  both  man  and  beast  charges  are  so 
extremely  moderate  that  it  would  be  a  little  hard 
to  find  fault  with  what  one  got. 

*'  The  greatest  nuisance  we  had  to  put  up  with 
was  the  eternal  row  that  went  on  all  night  between 
the  master  of  the  horse  and  his  ponies.  These 
beasts  are  usually  not  much  larger  than  a  good 
Shetland  pony,  never  broken,  often  very  vicious, 
invariably  unsound,  frequently  knock-kneed,  with 
a  big  head  and  small  feet  and  never  groomed  except 
when  his  tail  is  tied  up.  To  complete  the  picture, 
they  are  always  ready  to  do  a  waltz  or  some  other 
erratic  performance  when  they  are  not  too  tired. 

"The  doors  and  windows  of  the  houses  are  usually 
of  paper — a  tough  Korean  variety,  excellent  for 
many  purposes  ;  it  has  this  peculiarity,  that  if 
damped,  it  is  very  easily  broken.  The  Koreans, 
especially  the  women-kind,  curiously  disposed,  would 
wet  their  fingers  and  quietly  push  them  through 
the  doors  and  wmdows,  and  peep.  So  intense  is 
this  curiosity,  and  such  a  nuisance,  that  I  often 
found  it  necessary  to  let  them  have  their  *Look 
see'    before  we  retired  and   strictly  prohibit   them 

8 


114  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

from  even  approaching  our  windows  or  doors  after- 
wards. Fortunately  we  had  an  excellent  boy, 
Manyongi,  who  stood  us  in  great  stead,  backed 
up  as  he  was  by  the  Korean  officials,  who,  to  give 
them  their  due,  were  most  tractable  and  willing 
to  carry  out  my  wishes. 

"  Naturally  the  circumstances  of  the  journey  were 
not  what  some  people  would  call  pleasant,  but  it 
was  pleasing  indeed  to  have  a  gang  of  men  who 
were  so  amiable  and  ready  to  obey  orders. 

*'  The  monotony  of  the  topography  of  Korea  is 
somewhat  remarkable.  The  section  of  the  country 
through  which  I  travelled  embraced  a  wide  stretch 
of  landscape,  and  can  best  be  described  as  a 
series  of  small  valleys  and  small  hills  or  hill  ranges. 
In  the  centre,  or  what  may  be  described  as  the 
backbone  of  Korea,  these  hills  might  be  termed  small 
mountains,  but  in  no  place  was  great  elevation 
attained  ;  indeed,  our  highest  pass  was  only  1,500 
ft.  above  sea  level.  We  passed  through  valley 
after  valley  and  crossed  range  after  range  into  other 
valleys,  the  scenery  throughout  presenting  singularly 
little  change.  The  valleys  were  mostly  cultivated. 
Usually  there  were  fields,  in  which  crops  of  rice, 
corn,  and  millet  were  raised. 

"  The  villages  are  invariably  at  the  foot  of  the 
hills  rather  than  in  the  valleys  themselves.  They 
are  for  the  most  part  backed  by  uncultivated  hill- 


Korean  Hospitality  115 

sides  sparsely  studded  with  trees,  principally  pine 
and  larch.  The  trees  often  grow  in  perfection  on 
the  ridges,  showing  little  effect  of  wind  storms  or 
climatic  influences.  This  is  hardly  to  be  wondered 
at  in  a  climate  usually  so  calm  and  regular  as  that 
of  Korea. 

"  Hospitality,  I  might  say,  is  a  law  in  Korea.  As 
a  rule  I  have  never  found  it  violated  either  by 
missionary,  merchant,  or  cooHe.  In  any  town  where 
a  mission  station  existed  we  were  welcomed  with 
open  arms,  and  right  glad  we  were  to  accept  the 
hospitality.  Scarcely  less  cordial  was  our  treatment 
at  the  hands  of  the  natives.  On  arriving  in  hamlets 
or  villages,  the  best  house  was  always,  with  one 
exception,  immediately  placed  at  our  disposal.  The 
single  instance  in  which  the  courtesy  was  withheld  was 
rather  curious.  Our  advent  presumably  had  become 
known  shortly  before  our  arrival,  and  a  good  house 
selected  for  us.  A  delay  occurred,  however,  in 
conducting  us  to  it,  and  on  inquiring  the  reason, 
we  discovered  that  the  owner  had  just  died  and 
the  people  were  in  doubt  as  to  whether  it  would 
be  true  hospitality  to  let  us  occupy  the  same  house. 
We  settled  the  point  very  speedily  by  deciding  to 
go  elsewhere.  Our  intrusion  upon  these  good 
people  must  have  been  very  embarrassing  at  times, 
for  it  involved  moving  everything — not  much,  it 
is  true  ;  but  even  a  Korean  household  can  be  upset. 


ii6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

However,  it  was  all  done  with  rare  good  humour. 
Nor  was  any  exception  taken  to  anything  that  we 
did,  though  of  course  we  avoided  hurting  their 
susceptibilities.  The  only  penalty  we  had  to  pay 
for  the  inconvenience  we  put  the  people  to  was  to 
be  curiously  gazed  on  and  asked  all  sorts  of 
questions — as  to  what  we  wore,  what  our  clothes 
were  made  of,  whether  they  could  be  inspected 
and  tried  on .?  What  funny  people  those  foreigners 
were  !  the  Koreans,  by  their  attitude,  seemed  to 
say.  Why  did  we  wear  leather  boots  ?  Why  did 
my  wife  sit  on  the  side  of  the  saddle  instead 
of  on  the  top  of  it,  in  Korean  fashion  ?  This 
last-mentioned  characteristic  puzzled  them  greatly. 
Indeed,  I  found  subsequently  that  such  was  the 
stir  caused  by  my  wife's  side-saddle  that  her  fame 
circulated  through  the  country  as  'the  one-legged 
barbarian.' 

''  About  the  first  important  point  reached  on  our 
journey  was  Ping  Yang,  which  is  much  to  the  front 
just  now  in  connection  with  the  military  operations 
in  Korea,  as  it  previously  was  four  hundred  years 
ago  during  the  great  Japanese  invasion.  It  is 
situated  on  the  right-hand  bank  of  the  Ta  Tong  Do, 
'  Do '  being  Korean  for  '  river.'  It  is,  like  most 
of  the  principal  towns,  encircled  by  a  wall.  It  has 
from  nine  thousand  to  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
is    the    headquarters   of    the    Government    of    the 


NATIVE  CURIOSITY:    KOREANS   INSPECTING   AN    ENGLISH   LADY. 


A    WAYSIDE   INN    IN    KOREA. 


[To  face  p.  ii6 


A  VILLAGE  WELCOME. 


TYPES  OF   KOREAN   BEAUTY. 


IToface  p.  117. 


Town  Life — Kimshi  117 

province  in  which  it  is  situated.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  some  of  the  Japanese  houses  and  the 
missionary  headquarters,  the  houses  are  Korean,  one- 
storied,  built  of  stones,  mud,  and  on  the  kang 
system.  This  is  almost  the  invariable  house 
throughout  Korea,  and,  if  properly  built  and  of 
large  enough  dimensions,  can  easily  be  arranged 
for  European  habitation. 

"  Anchiu,  Anjuar,  or  Hung  Ju  (as  it  is  variously 
named),  the  next  town  of  importance  going  north 
on  the  Chong  Do,  is  an  ancient  fortress,  also  walled 
in,  and,  I  should  say,  would  be  a  position  to  be 
easily  defended  if  properly  attended  to.  Our  quarters 
in  this  town  were  not  in  the  ordinary  hotel,  but 
in  a  house  in  a  street — a  street  full  of  squalling 
children  and  curious  women.  The  place  was  more 
comfortable  than  our  usual  lodgings,  because  we 
were  free  from  the  horses  ;  but  what  with  the  smell 
of  the  kimshi  and  the  curiosity  of  the  street  mob, 
we  almost  wondered  whether  we  were  not  doing 
the  showman  in  real  life. 

"  I  cannot  pass  on  without  mentioning  kimshi. 
Large  earthenware  jars,  similar  to  those  used  by 
Ali  Baba  and  the  forty  thieves,  are  the  property 
of  every  family.  Into  these  jars,  in  the  autumn, 
is  packed  the  Chinese  cabbage,  together  with  other 
vegetables,  principally  onions  or  tomatoes,  with  the 
addition  sometimes  of  a  little   pepper.     These  are 


ii8  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

packed  tight,  half  buried  outside  the  house,  and 
covered  over  with  straw,  when  a  slow  process  of 
fermentation  sets  in.  This  is  the  universal  vegetable 
for  the  winter,  and  the  more  stale  or  fermented 
it  becomes,  the  greater  the  delicacy  ;  and  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  better  the  quality  the 
greater  the  odour — in  fact,  the  flavour  of  good 
kimshi  lingers  for  several  days  after  consumption. 

"  Our  scheduled  rate  of  travel  was  at  the  rate  of 
one  hundred  //,  or  thirty  miles  per  day.  Owing  to 
it  being  late  autumn,  the  mornings  being  dark  and 
the  days  short,  our  travelling-time  was  not  too  long, 
and  two  hours  at  least  every  day  were  lost  by  having 
to  tie  up  and  cook  the  ponies'  food.  This  I  found 
a  great  nuisance  ;  but  as  it  was  an  invariable  custom 
of  the  country,  I  was  unable  to  avoid  it. 

"  Of  the  better  houses  in  the  country  there  are 
few.  The  governors'  and  magistrates'  houses  and 
offices  stand  in  grounds  by  themselves  and  are 
usually  tastefully  arranged  in  conjunction  with 
the  pine-growths.  Thus  pretty  effects  are  often 
obtained,  and  these  are  reliefs  to  the  ordinary 
monotony  of  the  aspect  of  the  country.  I  have 
seen  some  that  would  have  appealed  to  the  country 
gentleman  at  home.  As  to  the  interior,  however, 
I  would  rather  say  litde,  except  that  they  are  much 
best  a  la  vista. 

"I   often   wondered   how   the   intrusion    of    the 


Attitude  towards  Foreigners  119 

foreigner  was  looked  upon,  and  I  took  pains  to 
ascertain  the  views  prevailing  on  the  subject.  I 
found  that  whilst  the  Koreans  believe  that  Korea 
is  for  the  Korean,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  so,  they 
consider  that  as  it  has  been  decreed  that  certain 
concessions  shall  be  given  and  foreigners  allowed 
to  work  in  the  country,  there  is  nothing  more  to 
be  said.  This  was  a  Governmental  view  ;  but  it  is 
to  be  clearly  noticed  that  a  Korean  on  a  foreign 
concession  is  individually  much  more  independent, 
for  he  is  then  free  from  the  universal  curse  of 
*  squeeze.'  Squeeze  it  is  from  first  to  last  and  any 
one  who  can  avoid  it  does  so.  This  undoubtedly 
is  the  reason  why,  when  the  Koreans  can  earn  money 
of  their  own  and  are  allowed  to  keep  it,  they 
gradually  recover  an  independence  or  individualism 
that  seems  to  have  almost  been  crushed  out  of  them 
when  subjected  to  the  executive  power. 

"  Poverty  on  every  hand  is  apparent.  There  is 
no  incentive  to  work.  They  grow  nearly  everything 
they  require,  and  everything  apart  from  their  bare 
necessities  belongs  to  somebody  else.  A  few  pedlars 
going  through  the  country  seem  to  serve  the 
ordinary  wants  of  both  men  and  women.  A  few 
yards  of  calico,  a  bit  of  tobacco,  some  ginsang  are 
practically  all  their  requirements,  with  the  exception 
of  cooking  utensils,  which,  being  of  brass,  become 
heirlooms. 


I20  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

**  My  mission  was  to  ascertain  the  mineral  value 
of  some  of  the  Imperial  property.  In  connection 
with  this  there  is  one  tribute  that  I  must  pay  to  the 
Koreans.  Although  they  were  often  mistaken  as  to 
the  how,  why,  or  wherefore  of  this  or  that  deposit, 
their  statements  of  fact  were  without  exception 
true. 

"  A  word  as  to  the  Korean  climate.  My  journey 
was  undertaken  in  October,  which  is  rather  late  in 
the  year  for  travelling,  owing  to  the  approach  of  the 
cold  season.  Nevertheless,  we  found  the  climate 
on  the  whole  delightful.  The  only  real  drawback 
was  the  wind.  It  would  blow  very  hard  for  a  day 
or  two  at  a  time,  and  during  that  time  travelling 
was  unpleasant. 

'*  The  general  demeanour  of  the  people  is  one 
of  almost  stolid  indifference,  savoured  by  intense 
politeness.  It  is,  however,  mitigated  by  the  extreme 
curiosity  (especially  on  the  part  of  the  women-folk), 
to  which  I  have  previously  referred.  Nevertheless, 
a  Korean  in  passing  you  in  the  road  would  not 
even  trouble  to  see  who  you  were. 

"  A  characteristic  change  is  very  marked  amongst 
your  own  men  when  they  become  acquainted  with 
you,  and  during  a  rather  extended  trip  in  that 
country  I  always  found  them  easily  managed,  cheer- 
ful, and  willing,  and  never  but  in  two  instances  was 
there  any  hesitancy  to  obey  marching  orders.     On 


Pleasant  Memories  121 

these  occasions  1  had  previously  been  warned  that 
there  would  be  trouble,  on  a  supposition  that  there 
were  bandits  on  the  road.  Whether  the  marauders 
existed  or  not  is  dubious  ;  my  men  never  saw  any, 
but  the  mere  talk  of  them  served  to  derange  my 
plans.  On  the  whole  I  consider  myself  fortunate  in 
having  had  this  interesting  experience.  It  has  left 
behind  it  pleasant  memories  both  of  the  country  and 
the  people." 

With  these  observations  of  the  traveller  I  can 
appropriately  bring  the  Korean  section  of  this  work 
to  a  close.  I  must,  however,  permit  myself  the 
expression  of  a  hope  that  in  the  good  time  when 
the  foreign  war  drum  throbs  no  longer  on  Korean 
soil,  this  amiable  and  intelligent  race  may  be  per- 
mitted to  pursue  the  even  tenor  of  their  way  under 
happier  conditions  than  those  which  have  been  their 
lot  in  recent  times. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

CHINA — THE  INTEGRITY  OF  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE — RUSSIAN 
AGGRESSION  AND  BRITISH  ALARM — KANG  YU  WEE — THE 
CHINESE  REFORMER — HIS  SOLUTION  OF  THE  FAR  EASTERN 
PROBLEM  —  INTERVIEW  WITH  LI  HUNG  CHANG  —  SIR 
ROBERT    hart's    VIEWS 

WHILE  Korea,  through  political  and  military 
exigencies,  has  become  the  central  feature  in 
the  great  drama  which  is  being  played  out  in  the 
Far  East,  it  is  the  vast  figure  of  China  looming 
in  the  background  that  is  the  real  point  of  interest. 
The  struggle  in  "  the  Land  of  the  Morning  Calm," 
absorbing  as  it  is,  is  but  the  lever  de  rideau  which 
precedes  the  main  piece  in  the  programme.  When 
it  has  been  performed,  there  will  still  remain  the 
problem  of  the  future  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  which 
has  weighed  like  a  nightmare  upon  the  statesmen 
of  the  world  during  the  last  few  years.  A  great 
Frenchman  some  time  ago  likened  China  to  a 
corpse  floating  about  on  the  waters  of  civilisation, 
disturbing  the  harmony  of  nations  by  its  pollution. 
It  was  a  powerful  and  poetical  simile,  but  it  is  not 


-J 


::X\. 


M.ii^^^\'M&^^'S^- 


CHEFOO   FROM   THE   SEA. 


CHEFOO  :   COALING. 


[To/ace  p.  122. 


CHEFOO  :   THE   ROADSTEAD. 


GOING    DOWN    TO   TAKU. 

(The  view  shows  the  ice  still  on  part  of  the  river.) 


{To  face  p.  123. 


Decadence  of  Chinese  Government      123 

strictly  accurate.  It  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
that  she  is  a  Vast  frame  paralysed  in  the  extremities 
and  weakened  by  internal  disorders,  but  still  strong 
in  the  inherent  vitality  of  a  fine  constitution.  Dead 
she  certainly  is  not.  Heavy  as  are  the  blows  that 
have  fallen  upon  her  in  recent  years,  sorely  though 
she  has  been  stricken,  her  wonderful  vigour  remains 
practically  unimpaired,  and  she  continues  what  she 
has  been  for  centuries,  the  greatest  self-contained 
empire  in  the  world.  We  speak  of  the  break-up 
of  China  when  we  mean  the  break-up  of  her  effete 
Government.  We  refer  to  her  decadence  when 
we  really  have  in  our  minds  the  moral  degeneracy 
of  the  corrupt  wielders  of  her  power.  The  great 
nation  of  four  hundred  million  souls,  inhabiting 
a  vast  area  that  is  almost  a  continent  in  itself,  is 
what  it  has  always  been,  a  potent  force  in  the 
world's  history.  Though  the  barbarian  thunders 
from  without,  and  even  intrudes  upon  its  privacy, 
the  mighty  mass  lives  its  life,  neither  moving 
forward  nor  retreating,  but  simply  stagnating. 

My  visit  to  China  was  paid  more  than  three 
years  ago,  at  a  period  anterior  to  the  starding  series 
of  incidents  which  commenced  with  the  Boxer 
outbreak  ;  but  though  much  has  changed  since  then 
in  the  international  outlook  in  the  Far  East,  the 
problems  which  are  occupying  the  chancellories 
now    are    much    the    same    as    those   which   were 


124  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

brought  to  my  notice  when  I  made  my  tour. 
The  scenes  have  been  shifted  somewhat,  the  actors 
have  been  replaced  by  others  in  a  few  instances, 
but  the  same  piece  holds  the  audience,  and  the 
piece  is,  The  Integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  So 
when  I  record  here  my  impressions,  and  reproduce 
the  notes  I  made  of  the  numerous  conversations  I 
had  with  many  leading  Far  Eastern  authorities 
whom  I  met  in  the  course  of  my  wanderings,  I  am 
able  to  claim  for  them  a  freshness  of  interest  which 
does  not  as  a  rule  attach  to  the  fugitive  records 
of  the  travelling  diarist. 

At  the  time  of  my  arrival  in  China  the  question 
of  Russian  aggression  and  of  its  probable  effects 
on  the  political  and  commercial  future  of  China 
was  the  sole  topic  everywhere.  The  rapid  march 
of  the  Northern  Bear  from  her  icy  solitudes  to 
the  warmer  regions  washed  by  the  Yellow  Sea 
had  startled  Englishmen,  who  had  so  long  held  to 
th^  doctrine  of  British  predominancy  in  China  as 
to  regard  it  almost  as  a  tenet  of  their  faith.  The 
rapid  absorption  of  Manchuria  following  upon  the 
ejection  of  the  Japanese  from  Port  Arthur  was  to 
them  a  presage  of  the  coming  doom  of  China  if  the 
voice  of  Britain  did  not  sound  a  peremptory,  *'  Thus 
far  shalt  thou  go,  and  no  farther."  What  had 
accentuated  the  feeling  of  alarm  was  the  attitude 
taken  up  by  Russia  towards  the  Northern  Railway 


Fear  of  Russian  Aggression  125 

scheme.  Her  aggressive  demands  in  connection  with 
this  enterprise,  coupled  with  the  marked  obsequience 
of  the  Pekin  authorities,  told  a  story  of  triumphant 
intrigue  which  seemed  to  threaten  the  very  founda- 
tions of  Chinese  power.  Talking  with  all  sorts 
and  conditions  of  Anglo-Chinese  from  one  extremity 
of  China  to  the  other,  1  found  this  note  of  appre- 
hension predominant.  A  great  calamity  seemed  in 
their  view  to  be  impending,  which  nothing  short 
of  the  most  vigorous  diplomacy  appeared  to  be 
calculated  to  avert. 

With  these  opinions  I  shall  have  to  deal  later  in 
detail.  Meanwhile,  I  may  perhaps  put  forward 
what  I  may  describe  as  the  native  view  of  the  new 
situation  created  in  the  Far  East  by  the  appearance 
of  Russia  as  the  lessee  and  practical  owner  of  the 
Manchurian  provinces  and  the  self-constituted  rever- 
sionary legatee  of  the  greater  part  of  the  dominions 
of  the  Far  Eastern  Sick  Man. 

A  happy  accident  placed  me  in  a  peculiarly  advan- 
tageous position  to  ascertain  the  drift  of  native 
sentiment.  One  of  my  fellow-passengers  on  the 
steamer  by  which  I  crossed  the  Pacific  Ocean  to 
Japan  was  Kang  Yii  Wee,  the  great  Chinese 
reformer,  whose  dramatic  flight  from  Pekin  and 
subsequent  escape  on  a  British  man-of-war  from 
the  dangerous  vicinity  of  the  Chinese  dominions 
caused    an    international    sensation   which   will    still 


126  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

be  remembered.  Kang,  who  is  an  excellent  specimen 
of  the  best  type  of  educated  Chinese,  was  still 
greatly  in  fear  of  the  powerful  arm  of  Chinese 
Mandarinism.  He  was  surrounded  by  a  large 
bodyguard  of  servants  ;  and  so  suspicious  was  he 
of  foul  play  that  his  food  was  always  tasted  in  his 
presence  by  one  of  his  suite  before  he  would  him- 
self partake  of  it.  To  me  he  displayed  a  courteous 
affability,  and  after  a  time  unburdened  himself  upon 
the  then,  as  now,  all-absorbing  question  of  China's 
future.  His  view  was  that  China  must  lean  upon 
Great  Britain  instead  of  following  the  policy 
favoured  by  "  the  old  gang  "  of  Chinese  officials  of 
relying  upon  Russia.  He  expressed  great  fear  of 
the  consequences  of  Russian  encroachments  in 
Manchuria,  and  predicted  that  Great  Britian  would 
assuredly  lose  her  trade  in  that  part  of  China  if  a 
check  were  not  given  to  the  ambitious  designs  of 
Russia.  Referring  to  the  then  recent  series  of  events 
which  culminated  in  the  deposition  of  the  EmpeRor, 
he  maintained  that  the  proper  policy  for  our  Govern- 
ment to  pursue  was  to  insist  upon  His  Majesty's 
reinstatement.  Such  a  course  he  deemed  to  be 
thoroughly  practicable,  and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to 
say  that  it  would  have  the  support  of  the  Empress, 
who  was  weighed  down  with  remorse  at  the  part 
she  had  played  in  the  couf  d'iiaty  and  would  willingly 
restore  her  son  if  she  were  backed  in  such  action. 


A  Chinese  Reformer's  Views  127 

Kang  Ytl  Wee  went  on  to  say  that  he 
looked  to  Great  Britain  to  extricate  China  from  her 
troubles.  She  alone,  in  his  opinion,  was  the  Power 
which  could  save  the  situation  from  becoming 
desperate.  I  ventured  to  suggest  that  the  Chinese 
must  help  themselves,  and  pointed  out  that  they 
might  strengthen  their  position  enormously  if  they 
took  their  army  and  navy  in  hand  and  made  them 
efficient  weapons  of  defence.  Kang  Yd  Wee,  how- 
ever, dissented  from  this  view.  Such  was  the 
condition  of  administrative  disorganisation  in  China, 
he  said,  that  he  despaired  of  anything  being  done 
from  within.  I  then  asked  the  fugitive  reformer 
to  give  me  in  detail  his  views  of  what  the  solution 
of  the  question  should  be,  and  he  promised  to  do 
so.  Subsequently  I  received  from  him  in  Chinese  a 
remarkable  document,  of  which  the  following  is  an 
exact  translation  : 


MATTERS   OF  SERIOUS   CONSEQUENCE  TO 
ENGLAND  AND  CHINA. 

Section  I. 

A.  China  is  a  great  Empire.  The  people  are  five 
hundred  million,  and  its  danger,  weakness  in  division 
or  partition  or  maintenance,  truly  concerns  the  affairs 
of  the  whole  world — not  Asia  only,  but  Europe. 

B.  England  regards  commerce  as  the  essential  element 
in  her  empire.  Of  Chinese  commerce,  England  holds 
the   larger   half.      If  China   has   trouble   and   change, 


128  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

England  cannot  possibly  sit  still  and  look  on,  but  must 
ponder  over  how  to  settle  it.  In  settling  it,  England 
must  desire  that  the  settlement  should  be  according  to 
the  best  English  methods. 

C.  Russia  and  England  are  the  two  greatest  nations 
on  the  earth,  neither  of  which  will  yield  to  the  other. 
Formerly,  Russia  was  involved  with  Turkey,  and  made 
war.  England  put  forth  all  her  military  power  to  repel 
it.  Now,  Chinese  territory  is  larger  than  the  Sultan's 
dominions,  and  the  people  are  more  numerous  than  his 
subjects — so  much  so,  indeed,  that  Turkey  cannot  be 
compared  to  China.  Russia  and  England's  contentions 
in  remote  regions  are  gradually  shifting  towards  the 
Far  East.  The  two  nations  are  putting  forth  their 
might  in  the  Far  East.  If  one  could  'get  alone  the 
authority  and  power  in  China,  that  one  would  be  still 
more  mighty. 

D.  Though  China  is  weak,  if  the  different  nations 
should  carry  out  their  talk  of  Division,  regardless  of 
the  enormous  extent  and  population  of  the  country, 
of  the  number  of  tribes  which  combine  to  make  up 
that  population  with  entirely  different  religions  and 
forms  of  government,  and  of  the  fact  that  this  people 
is  enlightened  and  energetic  and  not  to  be  compared  to 
the  negroes,  they  would  find  that  to  take  the  country 
by  force  would  involve  them  in  the  greatest  difficulties 
of  government.  It  is  as  though  you  were  to  eat  some- 
thing hard  to  digest,  or  a  large  fish-bone  stuck  in  your 
throat  which  would  choke  you ;  in  other  words,  it  is 
incompatible.  Such  a  thing  no  wise  man  would  under- 
take ;  and  as  for  England  taking  part  in  the  partition 
of  China,  it  would  be  for  her  especial  disadvantage. 
Not  only  would  there  be  quarrelling  with  Germany  and 
France,  but  Russia  would  seize  upon  the  desert  north 
of  the  Great  Wall  and  Mongolia.     They  would  utilise 


A  Suggestive  Present  129 

the  people  north  of  the  Hivangho,  nourish  and  train 
them  as  soldiers  until  the  Iron  Road  is  finished,  when 
they  would  further  encroach  southwards  until  their 
horses  would  be  feeding  in  Kiangnan,  and  they  would 
press  on  towards  the  north  wall  to  attack  India  from 
the  north.  The  powerful  military  forces  of  Russia, 
combined  with  the  multitudes  of  Chinese,  would  make 
an  inroad  into  India ;  and  when  England  was  therefore 
obliged  to  protect  her  own  interests  in  India,  what 
leisure  would  she  heve  to  protect  her  newly  acquired 
territory  in  China?  How  shall  England  resist  Russia? 
Russia  has  a  vast  extent  of  country,  with  land  connections 
everywhere,  and  England,  though  she  might  take  her 
ships  over  the  ocean  (naval  power),  yet  owing  to  Russia 
being  in  close  proximity  to  China  and  India,  she  would 
find  extreme  difficulty  in  bringing  her  naval  forces  into 
play.  The  difference  thus  between  England  and  Russia 
is  incalculable  ;  therefore,  when  Russia  has  finished  her 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  she  can  straightway  make  a 
great  move  in  the  Far  East,  which  no  power  can  resist. 
If  England  does  not  retain  some  territory,  it  is 
an  exceedingly  bad  look-out  for  her ;  therefore  the 
maintenance  and  integrity  of  China  would  provide 
the  only  sufficient  territory  for  England  to  work 
upon.  That  would  be  England's  great  advantage  ; 
whereas  to  cut  up  China  would  be  to  England's  great 
injury. 

The  tendency  of  human  nature  is  to  take  things 
easy  and  aim  at  small  advantages  and  forget  greater 
disadvantages.  Russia  now  has  not  finished  the  railway, 
and  is  sure  to  have  many  fair  speeches,  and  try  to  delay 
matters,  and  even  /lo/d  a  council  for  a  universal  putting 
away  of  arms,  or  make  endeavours  for  a  treaty  with 
England.  In  general  we  may  say  that  whatever  Russia 
does  when  the  railway  is  finished,  she  is  certain  to  have 

9 


130  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

a  great  demonstration  in  the  East,  and  what  she  is  most 
jealous  of  is  England.  What  England  depends  upon  is 
India.  Russia  is  sure  to  muster  the  strength  she  has 
got  to  attack  India.  If  India  should  have  any  disturb- 
ance or  movement  of  any  kind,  England's  empire  is  in 
ruins,  and  England  will  not  be  an  Eastern  nation. 
Granting  even  that  she  has  more  or  less  a  share  in  the 
division  of  China,  that  also  is  what  she  is  not  able  to 
protect ;  therefore  for  England's  policy  there  is  nothing 
like  putting  forth  all  her  strength  to  protect  China,  and 
not  for  a  moment  having  any  delusion  about  a  treaty 
with  Russia  for  a  common  division. 

E.  All  who  desire  to  have  influence  and  strength 
in  their  Government  must  first  have  great  virtue  in 
their  nation.  Then  to  get  influence  and  strength  is 
easy.  England  has  hitherto  been  very  friendly  with 
China,  and  therefore  the  advantages  she  obtained  were 
very  many.  During  the  fight  with  Japan,  England 
stood  still  and  looked  on.  Russia  used  big  words  and 
empty  energy,  and  so  restored  Liao-tung  to  China ; 
and  then  the  Conservative  party  of  China,  such  as  the 
Dowager-Empress  Yung  Luh,  etc.,  did  not  know  the 
great  game  that  was  on,  but  were  influenced  by  the 
great  grace  (Russian).  So  the  Empress-Dowager  con- 
tracted a  secret  treaty  with  Russia,  and  gave  up  three 
Eastern  provinces,  the  railway  and  bank  ;  nay,  more, 
she  gave  up  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan,  and  also 
promised  to  give  the  three  Eastern  provinces  in  Chili 
for  the  drilling  of  soldiers.  At  last  Russia's  way  was 
opened  for  the  exercise  of  her  dry  land  influence.  It 
was  like  spreading  out  the  wings  of  heaven  to  envelop 
the  East.  England,  although  she  got  something,  it  was 
trifling  and  far  from  worthy  of  comparison  with  what 
Russia  received.  How  is  this  ?  It  was  the  Conservative 
Dowager  party  who  in  sincerity  of  heart  were  influenced 


Li  Hung  Chang's  Views  131 

by  Russia,  trusted  Russia,  put  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  Russia,  and  did  not  dare  to  be  friendly  to 
England.  This  was  where  England  missed  her  oppor- 
tunity. The  Emperor  was  capable  of  being  friendly  to 
England,  but  now  he  is  deposed  ;  therefore  England 
should  wish  to  protect  China  entire  as  the  basis 
to  work  from,  not  have  a  direct  boundary  line  with 
Russia. 

Such  is  the  outline  of  policy  which  Kang  Ya  Wee 
put  into  my  hands.  I  think  it  will  be  conceded 
that  it  shows  a  wonderful  grasp  of  the  essential 
factors  in  the  extremely  complicated  web  of  Far 
Eastern  politics  and  also  exceptional  prescience. 
The  writer  foresees  clearly  dangerous  tendencies  of 
Russian  policy  alike  to  China  herself  and  to  British 
power  in  the  East.  Nor  is  he  under  any  patriotic 
delusions  as  to  the  resisting  power  of  China  if  left 
to  herself.  Much  has  happened  since  he  wrote  his 
letter,  but  nothing  that  does  not  strengthen  his 
arguments. 

Not  many  weeks  after  I  had  taken  leave  of  Kang 
Yii  Wee,  I  had  an  opportunity  of  hearing  from  the 
lips  of  his  arch-enemy,  Li  Hung  Chang,  what  may 
be  termed  "  the  other  side  of  the  question."  While 
at  Pekin  I  called  upon  him  to  pay  my  respects, 
and  I  had  a  most  interesting  talk  with  him  through 
the  medium  of  Mr.  Pethick,  whose  profound 
knowledge  of  Chinese  made  him  an  excellent 
interpreter.     I  found  the  old  statesman  in  excellent 


132  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

form,  keen  and  alert,  and  at  times  quite  vivacious. 
I  transcribe  from  my  diary  the  notes  of  my 
interview. 

His  Excellency  was  much  interested  to  learn  that 
I  had  travelled  with  Kang  Yii  Wee,  and  asked  me  many 
questions  on  the  subject.  He  pointed  out  that  he  was 
a  fugitive,  and  asked  whether  we  intended  to  harbour 
him.  I  told  him  that  political  fugitives  were  always 
safe  in  the  British  Empire,  but  he  answered : 

"  He  is  now  in  Hong  Kong,  and  if  he  attempts 
to  stir  up  rebellion  in  China,  will  you  then  inter- 
fere ?  " 

I  replied  that  in  such  circumstances  he  might  receive 
a  friendly  hint. 

He  said  he  admired  Kang  Yii  Wee  as  a  student,  but 
he  was  unfitted  to  become  a  great  reformer.  He  was 
too  much  in  a  hurry,  and  had  wickedly  endeavoured 
to  do  away  with  the  Dowager-Empress,  who  was  very 
experienced,  with  many  years'  knowledge  of  affairs, 
while  the  young  Emperor,  who  had  listened  to  the 
seditious  suggestions  of  Kang  YU  Wee,  was  young, 
inexperienced,  and  had  scarcely  ever  been  out  of 
the  palace,  and  was  quite  unable  to  cope  with  the 
world. 

(I  think  this  eulogy  of  the  Empress  was  passed  of 
set  purpose,  for  all  interviews  in  China  are  more  or  less 
public.  Coolies  were  continually  coming  in  and  out 
of  the  room  while  we  were  conversing,  and  everything 
that  Li  Hung  Chang  said  would,  I  heard,  undoubtedly 
reach  the  Empress.) 

He  said,  "  How  would  you  like  some  one  in  England 
to  plot  against  your  Queen  with  a  view  to  putting  the 
Prince  of  Wales  in  her  place  ?  " 


Li  Hung  Chang's  Influence  133 

I  pointed  out  that  in  our  country  Parliament  was 
supreme,  but  that  if,  for  instance,  such  a  disastrous 
thing  should  happen  as  had  recently  occurred  in  China — 
namely,  the  result  of  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  War — 
the  Government  in  power  would  have  been  swept  away  ; 
while  in  China,  although  defeat  and  humiliation  had 
ensued,  caused  by  corruption,  etc.,  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment and  those  in  authority  went  on  as  before.  I 
told  him  that  in  my  opinion  Kang  Yii  Wee  was  a 
patriot,  and  that  though  he  had  tried,  perhaps  too 
hurriedly,  to  bring  about  reforms,  we  in  England 
thought  those  reforms  were  imperative. 

Li  Hung  Chang  received  my  opinions  in  good  part, 
and  expressed  great  friendship  for  England.  He  hoped, 
he  said,  that  for  the  sake  of  her  commerce  and  old 
friendship  she  would  not  leave  China  in  the  lurch. 

Then  the  old  gentleman  went  on  to  praise  Lord 
Salisbury,  said  that  he  had  been  to  Hatfield,  and  also 
mentioned  that  Lord  (then  Mr.)  Curzon  had  shown  him 
round  the  House  of  Commons.  We  parted  on  excellent 
terms. 

Li  Hung  Chang's  house  was  a  miserable  affair  for 
a  great  personage — stone  floor,  wretched  furniture,  a 
courtyard  dirty  and  unkempt.  I  could  not  help  con- 
trasting this  residence  of  China's  leading  statesman 
with  Hatfield. 


Since  these  notes  were  penned  Li  Hung  Chang 
has  been  gathered  to  his  fathers,  and  the  destinies  of 
China  have  gone  into  other  hands.  His  death  can- 
not, I  think,  on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  a  loss  to 
the  country.  Great  as  his  services  undoubtedly  were 
to    the    empire    in    his    earlier    days    of  power,  his 


134  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

influence  had  latterly  been  exercised  in  a  way 
disastrous  to  its  interests.  He  had  became  a  mere 
creature  of  Russia,  the  pliable,  if  not  the  willing, 
instrument  for  the  execution  of  her  subversive 
schemes.  Popular  rumour  assigned  avarice  as  the 
motive  which  brought  about  this  unholy  connection, 
but  outwardly  at  all  events,  as  I  note  in  the  extract 
given  above  from  my  diary,  the  wily  old  statesman 
gave  no  sign  of  affluence.  If  he  was  rich — and  he 
was  reputed  to  be  fabulously  wealthy — he  was  most 
careful  in  his  mode  of  life  to  conceal  the  fact. 
Whether,  however,  cupidity  influenced  him  or  not, 
upon  his  shoulders  must  be  placed  much  of  the 
responsibility  for  the  modern  misfortunes  of  China, 
for  without  his  aid  it  would  have  been  impossible 
for  Russia  to  have  achieved  the  astounding  diplo- 
matic successes  she  did. 

The  oflScial  Chinese  view  which  1  obtained  from 
Li  Hung  Chang  was  supplemented  by  opinions 
which  I  gathered  at  about  the  same  time  from  Sir 
Robert  Hart,  the  great  Englishman  who  has  long 
and  ably  managed  the  afl^airs  of  the  Maritime 
Customs  Department  of  the  Chinese  Government. 
There  is  no  European  living  who  has  a  profounder 
knowledge  of  China  and  the  Chinese  than  this 
remarkable  man.  For  close  upon  a  half  century  he 
has  been  a  conspicuous  figure  on  the  stage  of  the 
Far  East.     Trusted  implicitly  by  the   natives,   and 


Opinions  of  Sir  Robert  Hart  135 

respected  by  Europeans,  he  wields  an  authority  the 
like  of  which  no  foreigner  has  ever  exercised  in 
China.  I  lost  no  time  after  my  arrival  in  Pekin  in 
making  Sir  Robert  Hart's  acquaintance.  Our  con- 
versation proved  of  the  highest  interest.  Its  tenor 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  entry  from  my 
diary  : 

Sir  Robert  Hart  is  very  pro-Chinese.  He  spoke  of 
the  alarmists  with  amusement.  In  his  opinion  Russia 
cannot,  if  she  would,  make  any  great  encroachment 
upon  China.  In  his  view,  Russia  looks  upon  China 
as  her  natural  prey,  owing  to  her  contiguity ;  but 
she  will  not  make  a  move  to  establish  herself  unless 
other  countries  set  the  example.  He  said  that  Russia 
would  like  to  buy  the  Northern  Railway  because  it 
is  a  good  commercial  undertaking,  but  for  no  other 
reason,  and  that  some  of  the  English  bond-holders  were 
anxious  to  sell  to  the  Russians ;  but  he  stated  that  if  the 
railway  was  possessed  by  the  Russians,  it  would  not 
interfere  with  British  trade.  British  trade,  he  observed, 
had  not  been  hurt  at  all  by  them.  He  pointed  out, 
though,  that  Germany,  who  had  not  a  pound's  worth 
of  business  ten  years  ago,  was  making  great  inroads  and 
pushing  ahead  without  any  undue  assistance,  but  merely 
from  sheer  hard  work  and  being  content  with  small 
profits,  and  by  mixing  with  and  being  friendly  with  the 
Chinese.  A  further  point  in  favour  of  the  Germans,  he 
said,  was  that  they  found  out  exactly  what  the  Chinese 
required,  while  we  rather  went  on  the  old-fashioned  lines 
of  sending  to  the  Chinese  what  we  think  they  ought 
to  have.  He  said  that  the  British  merchants  never  mix 
with    the  Chinese,  but  go  off  after  their  work  to  their 


13^  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

games  and  recreations.  He  feared  nothing,  not  even 
the  break-up  of  China,  unless  indeed  it  was  caused  by  a 
financial  crisis  which  would  bring  China  under  foreign 
dominion.  He  told  me  that  he  was  at  present  engaged 
with  two  prominent  Chinamen  in  looking  into  the 
customs  tariff  question,  and  he  hoped  the  outcome 
would  be  reform  all  round,  i.e.  small  increase  of  duties, 
but  total  abolition  of  likin.  Everybody  agrees  that  the 
present  tariff  of  China  is  absurdly  small.  Sir  Robert 
said  that  any  increase  of  duties  would  fall  on  the  con- 
sumer. He  firmly  believes  in  the  Chinese  and  their 
desire  to  help  themselves,  admits  their  weakness,  but 
says  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  break  up  four  hundred 
millions  of  people. 

Sir  Robert  Hart  spoke  no  doubt  with  the  voice 
of  the  Chinese  oflftcial  when  he  referred  to  Russian 
aggression  and  to  its  probable  influence.  Moreover, 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  designs  of  Russia 
were  not  then  so  clearly  revealed  as  they  subsequently 
were,  and,  viewing  the  situation  from  the  standpoint 
of  official  Pekin,  he  might  well  consider  that  the 
fears  which  were  expressed  by  his  fellow-countrymen 
placed  in  "a  position  of  greater  freedom  and  less 
responsibility,"  were  exaggerated  if  not  unjustifiable. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  greatest  English  authority  on  China  did 
not,  even  after  the  Manchurian  policy  of  conquest 
by  railway  development  was  fully  exposed,  share  the 
popular  view  that  Russia's  action  in  the  Far  East 
is  a  grave  menace  to  the  integrity  of  China.     His 


Latent  Power  of  China  137 

opinions,  I  think  we  may  take  it,  were  influenced 
by  his  sense  of  the  enormous  reserve  force  there 
is  in  the  Chinese  people.  Kang  Yii  Wee,  it  will 
have  been  noticed,  makes  reference  to  this  factor 
in  his  letter  ;  but  he  evidently  is  not  so  convinced 
as  Sir  Robert  Hart  of  its  efficacy  unaided  to  preserve 
China  from  disruption.  The  point  is  one  of  great 
interest,  and  I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  it 
at  some  length  in  a  later  chapter.  For  the  present 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  note  the  interesting  divergence 
in  view  which  is  shown  by  two  experts,  each  with 
a  title  to  be  heard  on  the  subject. 


CHAPTER    IX 

BRITISH    ALARM    AT    RUSSIAN    AGGRESSION — EXPERT    VIEWS — 
<      THE      NORTHERN      RAILWAY  —  OFFICIAL       CORRUPTION  — 
BRITISH      ATTITUDE —  "  INTELLIGENT      ANTICIPATION      OF 
EVENTS   BEFORE    THEY   OCCUR  " 

I  HAD  not  been  long  in  China  before  I  was  made 
aware  of  the  intense  feeling  of  irritation,  not 
unmingled  with  despair,  excited  by  the  onward 
march  of  Russia  and  the  attitude  assumed  by  our 
Government  in  the  face  of  her  successive  acts  of 
aggression.  Arriving  at  Tientsin  after  an  interesting 
journey  up  the  River  Peiho,  past  the  famous  Taku 
forts,  I  found  the  commercial  community  full  of  the 
theme  of  Russian  arrogance  and  British  supineness. 
My  host,  a  leading  member  of  the  English  colony 
at  Tientsin,  was  particularly  bitter  about  our  "  effete 
policy"  and  our  "effete  Ministry,"  to  use  his 
phrases.     I  quote  from  my  notes  : 

My  host  was  of  opinion  that  Russia  and  Germany 
had  taken  the  wind  out  of  our  sails  by  the  weakness  of 
our  diplomacy  at  Port  Arthur  and  Kiao  Chau.  He 
said  that  the  Americans  were  endeavouring  to  obtain  a 
concession  to  build  a  railway  from  Pekin  to  Kalgan,  the 

138 


TAKU  :  THE  FORTS. 


TAKU  :  FROM  THE  ANCHORAGE. 


[To  face  p.  138. 


i£ 


TAKU  :    NATIVE    SHIPS    AT    ANCHOK. 


TAKU  :   IN   THE   OFFING. 


fTo  face  p.  139. 


Mr.  Claude  Kinder *s  Views  139 

great  trade  route  (this  was  subsequently  carried  through). 
He  seemed  pleased  to  think  that  the  Americans  were 
trying  to  obtain  this,  as  it  would  prevent  Russia  from 
dominating  that  part  of  China  which,  to  the  Britishers, 
is  so  vital. 

Soon  afterwards,  while  en  route  from  Tientsin  to  Pekin 
by  railway  (of  which  more  hereafter),  I  had  the  pleasure 
of  meeting  Mr.  Claude  Kinder,  C.M.G.,  the  manager  of 
the  Northern  Railway  Company,  who  has  played  no 
inconspicuous  part  in  the  great  struggle  for  supremacy 
which  has  been  going  on  in  the  Far  East  for  several 
years  past.  Mr.  Kinder's  view  was  that  Russia  should 
be  kept  out  of  Manchuria  by  force,  and  that  to  this  end 
we  should  form  an  alliance  with  America  and  Japan. 
He  maintained  that  if  such  an  alliance  were  not  brought 
into  existence,  all  China,  including  Hong  Kong,  would 
eventually  become  Russian,  and  the  conquest  of  India 
by  Russia  and  the  downfall  of  the  British  Empire 
would  follow.  I  urged  upon  Mr.  Kinder,  as  I  had  upon 
my  host  at  Tientsin,  the  importance  of  the  British 
merchants  in  China  making  a  strong  and  united 
representation  to  the  home  Government  defining  the 
dangers  to  British  interests  which  were  involved  in 
the  encroachments  of  Russia,  and  outlining  a  clear 
policy  by  which  the  evil  might  be  combated. 

At  Pekin  the  same  note  of  alarm  was  sounded 
by  the  unofficial  members  of  the  British  community. 
The  great  bone  of  contention  at  the  time  was  the 
Northern  Railway.  This  enterprise  has  been  built 
mainly  with  British  capital,  under  an  arrangement 
with  the  Chinese  Government,  by  which  no  part 
of  the  line  should,  in  any  circumstances,  pass  to  a 


I40  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

foreign  country.  There  was,  however,  a  clause  in 
the  agreement  which  gave  the  Chinese  Government 
the  power  to  repay  the  bondholders  in  four  and  a 
half  years'  time  from  then  at  an  increase  of  20  per 
cent,  on  the  price  of  the  original  shares,  and  those 
interested  in  the  company  feared  that  Russia  might 
find  the  money  and  force  the  Chinese  to  buy  out 
the  British  interest  with  a  view  to  its  ultimate 
acquisition  by  them.  Mr.  Hillier,  the  manager 
of  the  Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai  Bank  at  Pekin, 
and  one  of  the  most  experienced  men  in  China, 
and  others  with  whom  I  had  long  conversations 
on  the  subject  expressed  a  fear  that  this  would  be 
the  ultimate  outcome  of  the  intrigues  which  were 
then  in  active  progress  at  Pekin,  and  they  insisted 
that  any  transfer  of  the  kind  should  be  resisted  to 
the  utmost,  as  the  railway  was  the  key  to  the  whole 
position.  They  told  me  that  the  history  of  the 
conditions  in  regard  to  the  construction  of  the 
second  section  of  the  line  from  Shan-hai-Kwan  to 
Newchwang  was  as  follows : 

When  the  arrangement  of  the  second  part  of 
the  line  was  made,  Russia  objected  to  this  section 
being  given  as  security  to  British  bond-holders,  on 
the  ground  that  China  had  agreed  with  Russia  that 
no  one  except  China  was  to  build  a  railway  outside 
the  Great  Wall  in  Manchuria.  The  case  was  referred 
home,  and  our   Foreign   Office  suggested   that   the 


Northern  Railway  Disputes  141 

Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai  Bank  and  the  Specie 
Bank  of  Japan  should  give  way.  The  agreement 
was  consequently  changed,  and,  instead  of  this 
portion  of  the  line  being  given  as  security,  the 
receipts  were  loaned,  and,  moreover,  a  clause  was 
put  in,  in  which  China  guaranteed  that  she  would 
under  no  circumstances  part  with  the  line  to  a 
foreign  Power. 

On  a  subsequent  day  the  question  came  up  again, 
when  1  had  a  further  opportunity  of  discussing  the 
position  in  the  light  of  later  negotiations.  My 
notes  are  as  follows  : 

I  had  another  talk  with  Mr.  HilHer,  and  he  told  me 
he  had  just  seen  Sir  Claude  Macdonald,  who  said  that 
he  would  look  with  disfavour  on  any  attempt  made  by 
Russia  to  get  hold  of  the  Northern  line,  and  that  the 
Foreign  Office  would  not  sanction  the  sale  of  the  line 
by  the  Northern  Company  to  Russia.  (This,  of  course, 
they  could  not  do  under  the  agreement.)  At  the  same 
time,  he  stated  they  would  not  interfere  much  if  Russia 
forced  the  Chinese  to  purchase  for  themselves.  I  told 
Mr.  Hillier  that  if  any  headway  was  to  be  made  in 
this  matter  in  England,  two  things  must  happen  :  (i) 
the  China  Association  in  London  must  be  greatly 
strengthened,  and  made  more  representative ;  (2)  that 
through  that  Association  the  House  of  Commons  should 
be  kept  fully  informed  of  all  the  doings  at  Pekin.  I 
put  this  question  to  him :  "  What  would  the  result  be 
to  commerce  if  Russia  became  the  owner  of  the 
Northern  Railway?  Would  trade  suffer?"  He  said 
that  politically  we  should  suffer  a  diminution  of  prestige, 


142  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

and  that  must  react  on  our  commercial  position  ;  but 
he  could  not  give  me  an  adequate  forecast  of  the  loss 
which  would  ensue. 

A  call  I  made  on  Sir  Claude  Macdonald  after 
my  talks  with  Mr.  Hillier  placed  me  in  possession 
of  the  official  view  of  the  vexed  question  of  the 
hour.  I  found  that  at  the  Embassy  there  was 
not  the  apprehension  which  existed  outside  as 
to  the  injurious  consequences  which  would  result 
from  the  purchase  of  the  Northern  Railway  by 
Russia.  As  to  the  condition  imposed  in  regard 
to  the  construction  of  the  section  of  the  line 
outside  the  Great  Wall,  I  gathered  that  the  reason 
the  British  Government  did  not  interfere  was 
that  the  details  were  more  or  less  settled  before 
the  agreement  came  into  operation,  and  that  no 
effective  protest  could  have  been  made  even  if  one 
had  been  desirable. 

This  struggle  over,  the  Northern  Railway,  which 
was  at  its  height  when  I  was  at  Pekin,  has  been 
continued  practically  ever  since.  During  the  Boxer 
troubles  Russia  promptly  annexed  the  line  on  the 
ground  of  military  necessities,  and  she  held  it  for  a 
considerable  time,  until,  in  fact,  she  was  compelled 
by  diplomatic  pressure  to  return  it  to  its  rightful 
owners.  She  has  always  regarded  the  enterprise  as 
an  infringement  on  her  legitimate  province,  and  I 
think  we   may  safely  assume   that    the   combat   of 


Diplomatic  Situation  in  Pekin          143 

which  the  incidents  I  have  described  at  Pekin  was 
a  part  will  be  resumed  as  soon  as  she  finds  herself 
in  a  position  to  continue  it  with  a  prospect  of 
success.  In  a  later  chapter  I  shall  have  occasion 
to  show  the  commercial  and  strategic  importance 
of  this  railway.  For  the  present  it  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  recent  events  have  only  strengthened  the 
view  entertained  by  the  unofficial  British  community 
in  Pekin,  when  I  was  there,  that  on  no  account 
should  we  permit  the  British  interests  in  the  line 
to  pass  into  other  hands. 

I  have  gone  at  some  length  into  this  question  of 
the  Northern  Railway  because,  though  the  narrative 
is  somewhat  ancient  history,  the  general  conditions 
at  the  present  time  are  practically  unchanged  ;  and 
because,  moreover,  the  episode  throws  a  flood  of 
light  upon  the  diplomatic  situation  at  Pekin.  The 
last  consideration  is  really  the  most  important.  It 
was  clear  to  me  then,  as  it  has  become  fairly  clear 
to  the  world  since,  that  Russian  influence  was  all- 
powerful,  even  in  a  matter  which,  as  it  closely 
touched  British  interests,  we  were  entitled  to  a 
commanding  voice.  While  in  China,  as  well  as 
since,  I  have  endeavoured  to  fathom  the  reasons 
for  this  singularly  unpleasant  phenomenon.  Of 
course,  there  is  the  obvious  explanation  that  Russia's 
successful  aggression  in  Manchuria  has  given  her 
a  lever  more  powerful  than  any  that  can  be  utilised 


144  '  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

by  Great  Britain  upon  the  Chinese  Government ; 
but  this  is  not  sufficient  of  itself  to  account  for  the 
series  of  incidents,  and  especially  those  connected 
with  trade  development,  which  have  marked  the 
history  of  the  past  few  years,  for  it  is  not  Russia 
alone  that  has  successes  to  show,  but  her  protigh 
and  accomplices  in  the  work  of  "peaceful  pene- 
tration." 

What,  then,  we  may  inquire,  is  the  secret 
of  the  amenability  of  China  to  foreign  pressure  ? 
As  far  as  Russia  is  concerned,  the  answer  given 
me  on  the  spot  and  reiterated  since  by  those  amply 
qualified  to  speak  is  "  Backsheesh  and  bluflF," 
particularly  the  former.  The  Northern  Power  is 
said  to  have  scattered  money  with  such  a  lavish 
hand  in  the  right  quarter  at  Pekin  that  she  has 
been  able  to  hold  Chinese  officialdom  in  the 
hollow  of  her  hand.  Li  Hung  Chang  was  only 
one  of  her  many  obsequious  instruments.  Thanks 
to  her  gold,  she  was  able  to  pull  the  wires  so  that 
the  dolls  would  dance  to  any  tune  she  dictated. 
When  the  consequential  results  of  the  intrigues  set 
on  foot  became  alarming,  as  they  often  did,  and  the 
venal  Ministers  showed  symptoms  of  fright,  then 
the  other  force  was  brought  into  play  and  timely 
intimidation  kept  things  right  for  Russia.  By  these 
means  Russia  has  been  able  to  consolidate  her  power 
in  Manchuria  and  to  pave  the  way  for  further  and 


ON    THE    RIVER    OFF   TAKU. 


A   STREET   SCENE   IN   TIENTSIN. 
(The  figure  on  the  left  is  a  Sikh  policeman.) 


[To  face  p.  144. 


A  PONTOON    BRIDGE,   TIENTSIN. 


A   VIEW  NEAR   TIENTSIN,    SHOWING  GRAVES. 


[To  face  p.  145, 


The  Tottering  Chinese  Dynasty        145 

more  startling  acquisitions  of  territory,  should  she 
be  not  checked  by  some  outside  agency. 

As  far  as  our  Government  are  concerned,  our 
chief  source  of  weakness  has  been,  in  the  view  of 
Anglo-Chinese,  the  failure  of  our  Foreign  Office  to 
grasp  the  character  of  the  momentous  changes  which 
have  come  over  China  in  recent  years.  We  have 
persisted  in  treating  her  as  a  civilised  Power,  to 
whom  it  was  necessary  to  address  the  polite  and 
polished  phrases  of  Western  diplomacy ;  whereas 
she  is  simply  an  effete  Eastern  despotism,  imbued 
with  all  the  vices  of  such,  and  swayed  only  by  the 
lowest  motives  of  self-interest  and  fear.  The  situa- 
tion in  some  respects  resembles  that  in  India  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Mogul 
Empire  was  tottering  to  its  fall.  The  internal 
causes  of  decay  which  then  existed  in  the  Mogul 
dominions,  it  is  true,  are  absent  in  China  to-day 
and  to  that  extent  the  position  of  the  native  Govern- 
ment is  stronger.  But  in  all  that  concerns  the 
governing  authority  itself  there  is  little  to  choose 
between  the  Power  seated  to-day  at  Pekin  and  that 
which  issued  its  decrees  nearly  two  centuries  ago 
from  the  marble  palaces  of  Delhi.  In  such  a  situa- 
tion the  ordinary  forms  of  diplomatic  intercourse 
become  almost  meaningless.  More  direct  means 
must  be  resorted  to  if  respect  is  to  be  secured  for 
demands  that  may  be  advanced.     I  do  not  suggest, 

10 


146  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

and  I  do  not  think  any  one  of  standing  amongst  the 
Anglo-Chinese  community  suggests,  that  we  should 
resort  to  a  blustering,  hectoring  poHcy  ;  but  I  do 
maintain  that  where  our  treaty  rights  are  infringed,  as 
they  have  been  in  several  notable  instances,  we  should 
quietly,  but  firmly,  give  the  Chinese  Government  to 
understand  that  we  shall  tolerate  no  deviation  from 
the  plainly  marked  path.  In  the  past  we  have  weakly 
submitted  to  encroachments  which  with  a  little  plain 
speaking  at  the  right  moment  might  have  been 
avoided  and  as  a  consequence  we  have  brought 
upon  ourselves  embarrassments  which  have  seriously 
compromised  our  position.  I  am  happy  to  think 
that  the  needs  of  the  situation  are  now  more  clearly 
appreciated  than  when  I  was  at  Pekin  and  that  our 
diplomacy  is  making  up  to  some  extent  for  lost 
ground  by  an  assertion  in  the  right  way  of  the 
enormous  legitimate  influence  that  we  can  still 
exercise  in  China  in  spite  of  the  rude  assaults  that 
have  been  made  upon  it  from  various  quarters. 
There  is,  however,  much  that  is  yet  to  be  done 
before  we  can  congratulate  ourselves  on  having 
secured  a  sound  foothold  in  the  Far  East. 

Though  we  have  made  mistakes  in  our  policy  at 
Pekin,  it  must  be  acknowledged  in  common  fairness 
that  our  representatives  have  been  seriously  handi- 
capped by  the  conditions  imposed  upon  them  by  the 
traditions  of  our  diplomatic  service.     While  Russia 


Intelligent  Anticipation  of  Events       147 

is  able  to  utilise  the  power  of  the  purse — no  mean 
diplomatic  asset  in  such  an  environment  as  Pekin — 
our  Ambassador  has  to  rely  solely  upon  his  own 
powers  of  persuasion  to  secure  his  ends.  Secret 
service  money  he  has  none,  and  if  he  had,  the 
principles  which  govern  the  actions  of  British 
diplomats  would  rightly  prohibit  him  from  turning 
it  to  account  in  the  devious  ways  which  are  notori- 
ously resorted  to  by  the  representatives  of  our  great 
rival  at  the  Chinese  capital.  British  integrity  does 
not  even  permit  the  use  of  funds  to  obtain  by  irregular 
channels  information  of  what  is  going  on  behind  the 
scenes — information  which  is  easily  purchasable  by 
those  who  have  money  in  their  hands  and  know 
where  to  place  it.  Many  instances  in  which  our 
representative  in  China  has  been  ignorant  as  to 
transactions  of  the  highest  importance  in  the  Chinese 
official  world  will  occur  to  mind.  Indeed,  it  will 
be  recalled  that  it  was  in  Pekin  that  was  manifested 
that  "intelligent  anticipation  of  events  before  they 
occur  "  which  caused  such  disquietude  to  the  present 
Viceroy  of  India  when  Under-Secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs.  A  singular  story  has  been  told  me  illustra- 
tive of  the  quaint  results  which  sometimes  flow  from 
the  existence  of  this  information  bureau  in  Pekin 
to  which  the  British  Ambassador  is  debarred  from 
subscribing.  On  one  occasion  a  gentieman  interested 
in  a  trading  venture,  went  to  our  representative  to 


148  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

enlist  his  aid  on  a  particular  matter.  '*  I  will  go 
to  the  Tsung  Li  Yamen  and  see  how  the  business 
stands,"  said  the  Ambassador,  after  hearing  what 
his  interviewer  had  to  say.     "If  you    do,"  replied 

the  caller,  "they  will  tell   you "  and  he  related 

what  he  considered  they  would  say.  The  Ambas- 
sador went  to  the  Tsung  Li  Yamen  (now  the  Board 
of  Direction),  the  great  Chinese  executive  body,  and 
sure  enough  he  was  told  in  almost  the  exact  words 
what  his  informant  had  prophesied  would  be  their 
answer.  This,  of  course,  was  not  second  sight  or 
even  telepathy,  but  merely  "intelligent  anticipation 
of  events  before  they  occur,"  according  to  Pekin 
methods.  Against  such  forces  the  diplomatic  gods 
of  Britain  may  at  times  well  seem  to  fight  in  vain. 
British  honesty  and  straightforwardness,  however, 
are  not  without  their  recognition  in  this  complex 
political  world  of  China.  Deep  down  in  the  heart 
of  the  Chinaman  there  is  an  abiding  faith  in  the 
honour  of  this  country.  He  believes  in  our  dis- 
interestedness and  our  genuine  desire  to  help  China. 
He  trusts  us  as  he  trusts  no  other  outsider.  This 
feeling  may  be  expected  in  time  to  produce  im- 
portant results.  It  has  already  rallied  to  our  side 
the  viceroys  and  many  of  the  important  officials 
outside  the  corrupt  clique  at  Pekin,  and  it  wiU 
probably  in  the  future  influence  a  still  wider  circle 
who  at  present  are  merely   indifl^erent  or  apathetic 


PEKIN  :   A   VIEW   FROM   THE   WALL. 


A   SCENE  IN   PEKIN. 


\ToJace  p.  149. 


Chinese  Faith  in  British  Integrity      149 

spectators  of  a  tragedy  which  they  feel  they  cannot 
avert.  Looking  at  the  matter  broadly,  we  may  say 
that  it  is  another  example  of  the  fact  that  honesty 
is  not  only  the  best  policy,  but  that  it  is  the  best- 
paying  policy  in  the  long-run. 


CHAPTER   X 

IMPRESSIONS  OF  PEKIN — FILTH  AND  SQUALOR  OF  THE  CITY — 
CHINESE  INDUSTRY  AND  THRIFT — EFFECT  OF  RAILWAYS 
ON  CHINESE  ATTITUDE  TOWARDS  REFORM — INDUSTRIAL 
CHINA — COTTON  MILLS  AT  WUCHANG — WAGES  OF  CHINESE 
WORKMEN 

DESPITE  its  historic  interest,  Pekin  is  one  of 
the  most  disappointing  cities  that  I  have 
ever  visited.  It  seems  to  typify  all  the  vices  and 
weaknesses  of  modern  China.  It  is  squalid  to  a 
degree  inconceivable  to  one  whose  acquaintance  is 
only  with  the  populous  places  of  the  West  ;  the 
public  buildings  are  conspicuously  mean -looking 
and  there  is  an  almost  entire  lack  of  the  picturesque- 
ness  which  lends  to  most  Eastern  cities  a  charm  to 
the  eye  of  the  traveller  from  the  West.  The  filth 
everywhere  is  astounding.  Sanitation  is  quite  un- 
known and  the  most  elementary  conservancy  is 
neglected.  As  a  consequence,  there  is  a  reek  about 
the  streets  so  powerful  that  you  carry  away  with 
you  from  the  city  a  memory  of  it  which  lasts  you 
for  days.     Under  all  conditions   of  weather   Pekin 

ISO 


Pekin  Street  Scenes  151 

Is  foul,  but  it  is  during  rainy  spells  that  its  draw- 
backs are  most  apparent.  Then  the  place  is  one 
great  morass  and  you  have  to  pick  your  way 
through  loathsome  mud,  the  accumulated  deposits 
of  one  of  the  most  uncleanly  populations  under 
the  sun.  Lately  I  believe  the  quarter  of  the  city 
about  the  Legations  has  undergone  a  great  trans- 
formation and  I  am  told  it  would  be  scarcely 
recognisable  by  any  one  who  knew  Pekin  in  the 
days  before  the  AlHed  occupation.  But  as  far  as 
the  main  proportion  of  the  native  city  is  concerned, 
it  is  still  what  it  was,  and  what  it  probably  always 
will  be — a  veritable  Augean  stable. 

One's  impressions  of  the  Chinese  capital  are  not 
rendered  the  more  favourable  by  the  difficulty  of 
getting  about  the  city.  Your  choice  is  between  a 
walk  along  unsavoury  paths  and  through  a  still 
more  unsavoury  crowd,  or  a  ride  in  a  Pekin  cart — 
a  solid,  springless  vehicle  which,  driven  over  the 
frightful  roads,  reduces  you  in  a  brief  space  to  a 
condition  almost  of  jelly.  Such  are  the  discomforts 
that  most  visitors  are  content  with  a  very  per- 
functory tour  and  I  cannot  candidly  say  that  my 
experiences  were  more  exhaustive  than  those  of 
others  similarly  placed.  I  saw  enough  of  the  city, 
however,  to  form  a  good  idea  of  its  main  features 
and  to  acquire  some  sort  of  notion  of  the  character- 
istics of  its  teeming   native   life.     Apart   from   the 


152  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

aspect  of  squalor  to  which  I  have  already  referred, 
the  side  of  Pekin  life  which  most  impressed  itself 
upon  me  was  the  low  level  of  existence  which  appears 
to  be  maintained.  There  were  none  of  the  marks 
of  opulence  which  we  associate  with  a  great  capital. 
The  crowds  in  the  streets  bore  the  appearance  of 
a  people  engaged  in  a  hard  struggle  for  existence  ; 
the  shops  were  mean  in  appearance  and  the  private 
houses  hardly  rose  in  any  instance  above  the  level 
of  a  tenement  building  in  a  London  rookery. 

Now  and  again  one  would  come  across  a  sedan 
chair  in  which  reposed  a  lordly  mandarin,  but 
even  here  one  could  not  help  being  struck  with  the 
absence  of  the  signs  of  taste  and  luxury  which 
usually  accompany  high  position.  More  likely 
than  not  the  bearers  would  be  a  squad  of  tatterde- 
malion coolies,  who  looked  as  if  they  would  be 
better  employed  in  scavenging  the  streets  than  in 
acting  as  personal  servants.  About  the  only  real 
piece  of  display  I  met  with  in  my  wanderings 
was  a  funeral  procession.  Here,  accompanying  a 
huge  catafalque,  upon  which  the  corpse  was  placed, 
was  a  great  body  of  professional  mourners  clad  in 
picturesque  costumes,  with  a  display  of  lanterns 
and  bright-coloured  emblems  which  seemed  to  my 
prejudiced  view  to  accord  ill  with  the  character 
of  the  function.  Associated  with  this  procession 
in   my  mind,  though  it  did  not  form  a  part  of  it, 


w     i  '^SK*^'^ 

^BMlBtg  jA^fflrSE*!fc.lMfttet    irtta^^^H 

pOW^ 

■W^  ^^F^ 

HHH 

HBft                          A    ^^^^^s^^^^B 

^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^Jjg^^^^ 

PEKIN  :    A   BUSY  SCENE  OUTSIDE   THE   GATES. 


PEKIN  :    A    WEDDING   PROCESSION. 


[To /ace  p.  15a. 


PEKIN  :    WATERING   THE    KOAUb. 


PEKIN  :   A  STREET  SCENE. 


{To  face  p.  153. 


Views  from  the  Walls  153 

was  a  train  of  double-humped  Bactrian  camels  laden 
with  merchandise,  which  followed  after  it.  These 
animals  are  much  used  in  this  part  of  China  for 
baggage  purposes,  and  they  are  a  common  feature 
in  the  Pekin  streets.  With  the  extension  of  the 
railway  system  their  sphere  of  influence  will  be 
greatly  limited,  if  it  does  not  disappear  altogether. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  experiences  that  the 
visitor  to  Pekin  can  have  is  to  mount  the  city 
walls  and  survey  the  capital  from  that  standpoint. 
The  great  rampart  which  encircles  the  city  is  an 
enormous  mass  of  masonry  many  miles  in  length 
and  in  places  50  ft.  high.  A  splendid  panoramic 
view  is  obtained  from  various  points  and,  as  your 
eye  takes  in  the  vista  of  temples,  palaces  and 
gardens,  you  are  almost  inclined  to  concede  that 
Pekin  has  attractions  after  all.  But  a  better  view 
even  than  that  from  the  walls  is  to  be  obtained 
from  an  eminence  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
palace,  known  as  Prospect  or  Coal  Hill.  This  is 
an  artificial  mound  raised  by  the  Ming  Emperors, 
who,  tradition  says,  used  coal  in  the  construction. 
It  towers  well  above  the  surrounding  buildings 
and  its  verdure-clad  slopes,  dotted  with  kiosks 
and  temples,  constitute  a  prominent  and  pleasing 
feature  of  the  landscape.  At  one  time  the 
European  was  free  to  mount  to  the  summit  of  this 
hill  and  roam  at  will,  but  since  the  Boxer  outbreak 


154  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

I  understand  the  spot  has  been  forbidden  ground, 
probably  because  of  its  dominating  the  palace 
enclosure. 

There  is  so  little  in  the  way  of  real  sightseeing 
in  Pekin  that  a  visitor  makes  the  closer  study  of 
the  ways  of  the  population.  In  many  respects  they 
are  ngt  nice.  However,  with  all  the  faults  of 
the  Chinaman,  it  is  impossible  to  deny  to  him  some 
estimable  qualities.  His  industry  is  prodigious. 
Labour  to  him  is  the  natural  order  of  existence  and 
he  settles  placidly  to  a  daily  round  which  would 
astound  the  ordinary  British  workman.  This  applies 
to  all  ranks  in  the  social  scale.  Here,  for  example, 
is  the  routine  of  a  day  in  the  life  of  an  official  : 
"  Left  home  each  morning  at  2  ;  on  duty  at  the 
Palace  from  3  to  6  ;  Privy  Council,  6  to  9  ;  War 
Department,  9  to  11  ;  Punishment  Board,  12  to  2  ; 
Foreign  Office,  2  to  6."  ^  Thus  we  have  a  sixteen 
hours'  day  as  a  normal  condition  of  official  Chinese 
life. 

Allied  with  indefatigable  industry  in  the  China- 
man is  a  remarkable  thriftiness.  Nothing  in  his 
eyes  is  waste.  There  are  some  wonderful  stories 
told  of  the  extreme  care  with  which  the  smallest 
and  apparently  most  valueless  articles  are  preserved 
and  utilised  in  the  domestic  economy.  Extra- 
ordinarily nasty  as  it  may  seem  to  our  fastidious 
*  Chinese  Characteristics. 


Consecration  of  the  Chinese  155 

Western  understandings,  the  very  defunct  cats  and 
dogs  of  the  streets  are  put  into  the  family  stock- 
pot.  One  story,  for  which  an  experienced  Anglo- 
Chinese  vouches,  relates  to  a  body  of  Chinamen 
who,  finding  some  dogs  which  had  been  poisoned 
by  strychnine,  promptly  made  a  meal  of  them.  No 
evil  results  are  said  to  have  ensued.  Indeed,  the 
dish  appears  to  have  been  greatly  relished,  the 
Chinese  taste  being  such  that  the  method  of  the 
demise  of  the  animals  was  considered  to  lend  an 
additional  attraction  to  the  feast. 

It  is  this  extraordinary  capacity  for  making  the 
most  of  things  which  constitutes  the  great  strength 
of  the  Chinese  as  a  nation.  Where  an  Occidental 
would  starve,  a  Chinaman  thrives.  He  lives,  and 
lives  well,  on  a  sum  not  greater  than  a  penny  a 
day.  In  times  of  stress  and  famine  thousands  have 
been  kept  alive  at  an  almost  infinitesimal  cost. 
Truly  it  may  be  said  of  this  remarkable  race  that 
their  wealth  is  to  be  measured  not  by  the  abun- 
dance of  their  possessions,  but  by  the  fewness  of 
their  wants  ! 

Whether  the  Chinese  are  susceptible  to  what 
we  regard  as  civilising  influences  is  a  point  which 
has  yet  to  be  finally  determined.  In  spite  of  the 
inroads  which  have  been  made  of  late  years  upon 
their  privacy,  they  have,  so  far,  changed  very  little 
in    all  that  concerns    their   national   life.     There  is 


156  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

an  intense  conservatism  about  the  Chinese  nature 
which  seems  to  be  proof  against  the  most  violent 
assaults  from  without.  The  prevalent  native  view 
is  that  China  is  a  centre  of  sweetness  and  light, 
and  that  all  who  live  beyond  its  limits  are  shrouded 
in  thick  darkness.  This  feeling  in  the  lower  classes 
oftentimes  finds  material  vent  in  the  heaving  of  a 
brickbat  at  the  foreign  devil.  In  the  more 
educated  ranks  it  is  expressed  in  polite  disclaimers 
of  the  suggestion  put  forward  by  the  Western  that 
China  might  with  advantage  adopt  the  conveniences 
of  Europe.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
railways  which  are  being  constructed  throughout 
the  country  will  not  do  what  generations  of  diplo- 
matic and  commercial  intercourse  have  failed  to 
achieve.  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  the  new 
agency  will  be  a  potent  factor  in  the  opening  of 
the  Chinese  mind.  Stolidly  and  even  contemptu- 
ously indifferent,  as  the  average  Chinaman  is,  to  the 
ordinary  inventions  of  the  West,  he,  it  would 
seem,  extends  to  railways  a  certain  respect,  and  in 
some  instances  even  receives  them  with  a  subdued 
enthusiasm.  Wherever  lines  have  been  opened  in 
populous  districts,  they  have  been  freely  patronised 
by  all  classes  ;  nor  is  there  now  the  least  difficulty 
in  arranging  for  their  construction.  Indeed,  in 
many  instances  I  am  told  by  gentlemen  who  have 
been  engaged  in  preliminary  survey  work  that  the 


Native  Cotton-Mills  157 

chief  anxiety  of  the  people  is  to  know  when  the 
railway  will  be  ready.  This  is  a  strikingly  different 
attitude  to  that  assumed  a  few  years  ago,  when  the 
railway  locomotive  was  looked  upon  as  an  accursed 
fire  demon,  to  be  banned  the  country  at  all  costs. 

The  industrial  side  of  Pekin  in  the  sense  in  which 
we  understand  the  term  is  of  small  account,  for  what 
few  manufactures  exist  are  of  an  insignificant  kind 
and  associated  almost  entirely  with  the  supply  of  the 
domestic  needs  of  the  population.  Later  on  in  my 
tour,  however,  I  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the 
Chinaman  working  under  Western  conditions  and 
with  Western  appliances.  The  occasion  to  which 
I  refer  was  a  visit  to  a  cotton-mill  at  Wuchang,  on 
the  Yangtse.  It  was  a  splendidly  equipped  esta- 
blishment, with  the  most  modern  machinery  supplied 
by  Messrs.  Brooks,  Doxey  &  Co.,  of  Gorton,  Man- 
chester. It  was  with  much  interest  that  I  looked 
forward  to  my  inspection  of  this  mill.  Here,  if 
anywhere,  I  thought,  I  should  have  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  the  growth  of  the  industrial  Yellow  Peril 
with  which  we  have  been  so  often  threatened  by 
political  and  commercial  alarmists.  Here  I  should  see 
in  active  operation  the  movement  which,  according 
to  these  individuals,  is  to  wipe  out  eventually  the 
Lancashire  trade.  I  must  say  the  result  was  far 
from  supporting  these  exaggerated  apprehensions. 
On  all  hands  I  found  evidences  of  the  ineradicable 


158  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

diflference  there  is  between  a  British  and  an  Asiatic 
industry,  though  the  two  may  be  outwardly  con- 
ducted on  the  same  lines.  The  work  proceeded 
in  a  listless,  half-hearted  way,  as  if  the  object  were 
to  keep  the  production  at  the  lowest  possible  level. 
There  seemed  no  effective  supervision,  and  the 
machinery  was  badly  tended.  Seeing  what  I  did, 
I  was  not  surprised  to  learn  that  the  mills  did  not 
pay.  It  would  have  been  remarkable  if  they  had 
done  so  under  such  a  slip-shod  system.  Some 
litde  time  before  I  visited  the  place  an  English- 
man had  been  employed  as  manager  ;  but  he  got 
himself  dishked  by  pointing  out  robberies  which 
took  place,  and  was  sent  away.  Honesty  of  the 
British  pattern  is  at  a  discount  in  China.  It  seems 
to  be  a  custom  amongst  the  Chinese  employees  to 
regard  their  wages  as  a  kind  of  retaining  fee,  and, 
according  to  their  code  of  morality,  it  is  quite  justi- 
fiable to  supplement  it  by  any  means,  either  honest 
or  dishonest. 

The  mills  at  Wuchang  are  on  a  very  extensive 
scale.  There  are  fifty  thousand  spindles,  and  four 
thousand  work-people  are  employed.  I  made  in- 
quiries as  to  the  wages  paid  and  conditions  of  labour, 
and  as  the  details  given  me  are  of  some  interest 
as  bearing  on  the  question  of  the  industrial  future 
of  China,  I  reproduce  them.  The  wages,  I  was 
informed,  were  as  follows  : 


Cheapness  of  Labour  159 

Chief  engineer     ...         ...     90  dollars  per  month =_;^9 

Second  engineer  ...         ...     40        ,,  „  =^4 

Machinists  ...       151040         „  „  =^i  loj.  to  ;£4 

(The  average  I  understand  to  be  about  20  dollars.) 

Boys  6  to  12  cents  per  day=i^</.  to  3^^. 

Coolies  or  unskilled  j  ^^  ^^^^^         ^  ^  2^^ 

labourers  ...  j  r         j  ^ 

The  employees  work  two  shifts  per  day  of  eleven 
hours  each,  one  hour  for  each  shift  being  used  for 
chow — i.e.  dinner.  These  mills,  I  may  add,  are  run 
by  the  viceroy  of  the  province. 

The  extraordinary  cheapness  of  labour  which  is 
revealed  here  is  fairly  typical  of  the  whole  of  the 
Europeanised  industries  of  China.  On  the  railways 
the  scale  of  payment  is  somewhat  higher.  For 
example,  the  following  were  given  me  as  the  average 
wages  paid  on  the  Northern  Railway  : 


Stationmaster 50 

dollars 

per 

month =;^5 

First-class  Cantonese  drivers  ...   60 

)i 

n 

=£6 

Northern  Chinese  drivers     25  to  50 

*) 

II 

=£2  10s.  to 

Railway  guards            ...        8  to  16 

M 

II 

=  16s.  to 

£1    12S. 

Ticket  collectors          ...        6  to  8 

II 

II 

=  i2.y.toi6j. 

Coolies'  wages             4^ 

II 

II 

or  gs. 

These  arc  wages  which  would  seem  to  make 
possible  the  most  ruinous  competition  with  the 
commercial  enterprises  of  the  West.  Yet  for  the 
reasons  I  have  indicated  above  I  do  not  think  that 
British  trade,  at  all  events,  has  much  to  fear  from 
Chinese  industries.     Where,  as  in  the  case  of  rail- 


i6o  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

ways  and  of  the  cotton-mills  at  Shanghai,  there  is 
sound  honest  European  management,  the  advantages 
of  native  labour  can  be  reaped  ;  but  in  manufacturing 
concerns  in  which  this  factor  is  eliminated  the  cost 
of  production  is  sure  to  be  so  greatly  enhanced  by 
the  corruption  and  dishonesty  which  are  engrained 
in  the  native  character  as  to  reduce  the  benefits  of 
cheap  labour  to  the  vanishing  point.  I  do  not  say 
that  a  time  may  not  come  when  Chinese  industry 
will  be  organised  from  without  ;  probably  some 
such  movement  will  be  witnessed  before  the  world 
is  much  older  and  on  a  large  scale  too.  But  even 
if  this  is  done,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  founders  of 
manufacturing  concerns  will  be  able  to  do  more 
than  minimise  the  evils  which  I  have  indicated. 
The  superior  moral  qualities  of  the  Western  work- 
man will  tell  not  less  powerfully  than  his  greater 
skill  and  adaptability,  and,  as  in  India,  where  he 
still  holds  his  own  in  spite  of  native  competition, 
he  will  continue  to  have  a  large  share  of  the  trade. 


THE   NORTHHKN    KAILW AY   OF  CHINA  :    A  STATION   SHOVVl.NG  TIIIKD-CLASS 
PASSENGERS   IN   OPEN  TRUCKS,    WITH  MULES  AND   BAGGAGE, 


THE   NORTHERN   RAILWAY   ul-    illlNA    UliKKL,   11    i-AbbtIS  THROUGH   THE 
GREAT   WALL. 

\Tofacep.  i6o. 


TONGSHAN  :    RAILWAY    WOl 


SHAN-HAI-KWAN  :    RAILWAY   WORKS, 


[Tojacep.  i6i. 


CHAPTER    XI 

STRUGGLE  FOR  CONCESSIONS  —  POLITICAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF 
FOREIGN  PROJECTS — HISTORY  OF  THE  NORTHERN  RAILWAY 
CONCESSION — OTHER  BRITISH  CONCESSIONS — THE  PEKIN 
SYNDICATE — ITS  VAST  IMPORTANCE  DESCRIBED  BY  LI  HUNG 
CHANG — MR.    glass's   EXPEDITION 

THE  battle  of  the  concessions  was  in  full  pro- 
gress when  I  was  in  Pekin.  Since,  it  has 
been  continued  with  varying  fortunes  for  the 
contestants,  but  with  the  one  tangible  result  that 
the  face  of  China  has  been  covered  with  the 
ambitious  designs  of  European  commercial  syndicates. 
It  is  curious  how  rapidly  events  have  marched. 
Not  more  than  twenty  years  ago  the  Chinese  tore 
up  the  rails  of  the  Shanghai-Wusung  Railway, 
a  short  line  some  six  miles  in  length,  and,  it  was 
thought,  washed  their  hands  for  a  century  of  rail- 
ways. Less  than  a  decade  since  there  was  not 
a  single  mile  of  line  in  the  country,  nor  was 
there  a  single  sanctioned  project.  At  the  present 
time  concessions  have  actually  been  obtained  for 
railway    schemes    with    a   mileage    of  5,051,    and 

161  n 


1 62  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

concessions  are  contemplated  for  2,080  miles  of 
line  in  addition.  Meanwhile,  construction  is  pro- 
ceeding with  feverish  haste  in  many  widely  separated 
centres,  and  already  trains  are  running  over  fully 
completed  sections  of  railway  in  the  heart  of  China. 
It  is  a  wonderful  transformation,  and  its  significance, 
political  and  commercial,  has  as  yet  scarcely  been 
realised  in  this  country. 

So  remarkably  little  is  known  in  this  country 
outside  expert  circles  of  the  progress  of  railway 
enterprise  in  China  that  I  have  got  a  friend 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  subject  to  put  together 
for  me  a  few  reliable  facts,  brought  up  to  date  with 
reference  to  the  various  concessions  which  have  been 
granted  by  the  Chinese  Government.  The  list  is 
a  long  one,  much  longer,  I  think,  than  even  those 
who  follow  Chinese  affairs  pretty  closely  imagine. 
First  to  be  noticed  is  the  Imperial  railways  of 
North  China,  to  which,  under  the  designation  of  the 
Northern  Railway,  I  have  referred  in  an  earlier 
chapter.  This  line,  which,  though  nominally  a 
Chinese  Government  affair,  was  largely  built  with 
British  capital,  runs  from  Pekin  to  Tientsin,  and 
thence  to  Newchwang,  with  a  branch  to  Sin-Min 
Ting.  It  has  a  length  of  550  miles,  and  as  a 
link  between  Newchwang,  Tientsin,  and  the  capital 
has  great  commercial  value.  Its  strategic  importance 
is  not  less  marked,  for  it  supplies  a  direct  road  to 


The  Railway  Works  at  Tongshan     163 

the  capital  from  Manchuria,  and  establishes  a  con- 
nection between  Pekin  and  the  sea  by  way  of  Taku. 
Russia's  repeated  efforts  to  get  control  of  the  line 
attests  its  military  significance.  If  the  enterprise 
was  in  her  hands,  she  would  effectually  dominate 
Pekin,  since  she  would  have  practically  uninterrupted 
communication  between  that  city  and  Port  Arthur. 
The  scheme  was  being  actively  prosecuted  when  I 
was  in  China,  and  I  had  an  opportunity,  which  I 
greatly  enjoyed,  of  journeying  over  the  line  as  far 
as  Shan-hai-Kwan.  My  visit  to  the  railway  works 
at  Tongshan  was  most  interesting.  I  reproduce  a 
note  I  made  at  the  time  of  the  matters  that  came 
under  my  observation  : 

Mr.  Kinder,  manager  of  the  railway,  met  us.  I 
went  over  the  railway  works,  and  saw  that  they  were 
beginning  to  make  machinery  for  themselves  by  Chinese 
labour.  They  have  to  import  the  iron  ore  from  England 
and  America.  The  work  is  not  what  one  would  exactly 
call  finished,  but  Mr.  Kinder  says  that  it  is  quite  good 
enough.  Chinese  labour  is  very  cheap  (twelve  dollars 
a  month  equals  24s.  for  unskilled  labour,  and  about 
£$  per  month  for  engine  fitters).  Mr,  Kinder  showed 
me  a  railway  engine  which  had  been  entirely  set  up 
by  Chinamen,  though  most  of  the  parts  had  been  made 
in  England.  Mr.  Kinder  says  that,  all  told,  the  railway 
engine  in  question  cost  about  ;^200  less  than  if  he  had 
bought  it  from  America.  American  engines  are,  by  the 
way,  generally  condemned.  They  only  last  from  five 
to  seven  years,  and  they  use  cast  iron.  English  manu- 
facturers  introduce   copper    pipes   and    brass    castings. 


1^4  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

The  only  objection  to  English  engines  is  that  they 
last  too  long,  and  sometimes  become  obsolete.  Mr, 
Kinder  informed  me  that  they  made  their  own  railway 
carriages,  but  import  wheels,  springs,  etc.,  from  England 
and  some  from  Germany. 

At  Shan-hai-Kwan  the  line  passes  through  the 
Great  Wall  at  an  aperture  known  as  the  Widow's 
Gap.  The  wall  at  this  spot  is  30  to  40  ft.  in 
width  and  60  to  70  ft.  in  height  :  6  ft.  on  either 
side  of  the  wall  is  brick.  The  contrast  between 
this  mighty  rampart,  one  of  the  ancient  wonders 
of  the  world,  and  the  bustling  modern  railway  is 
very  striking.  It  speaks  more  than  volumes  of 
the  change  that  is  going  on  in  China. 

If  British  enterprise  had  made  no  other  con- 
tribution to  the  development  of  China  than  this 
line,  it  would  still  have  a  respectable  title  to  be 
regarded  as,  in  an  important  sense,  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  opening  up  of  China  to  trade. 
Fortunately,  however,  there  are  other  and  even 
more  important  projects  standing  to  the  account 
of  our  countrymen  in  the  register  of  concessions. 
Taking  first  those  which  are  least  in  evidence  as 
regards  already  accomplished  work,  we  have  the 
Canton-Kowloon  line — an  important  project  which, 
when  carried  out,  will  supply  a  connecting  link 
between  our  dependency,  Hong  Kong — the  greatest 
trading  centre  in  China,  measured  by  the  tonnage 


THE    NORTHERN    RAILWAY   OK   Ci 

(In  the  background  of  the  picture  are  shown  great  mounds  of  salt.) 


ON  THE  GREAT    WALL. 


[To' face  p.  164. 


O.N   THE   GREAT  WALL. 


COAL-MINING  IN  SHANSI  :    A   MULE  TEAM  WITH   A   LOAD 
OF  COAL  (SEE   PAGE   173). 

[To  face  p.  165. 


The  Shanghai-Nanking  Railway       165 

of  shipping  which  passes  through  its  portals — and 
the  vast  native  city  of  Canton  with  its  population  of 
one  and  a  half  million  souls.  Less  than  a  hundred 
miles  separate  this  centre  and  Kowloon  on  the  main- 
land opposite  Hong  Kong,  and  the  country  is  not  of 
more  than  average  difficulty.  But  for  some  reason, 
which  has  not  been  divulged,  no  commencement  has 
been  made  with  the  work  of  construction,  though 
the  concession  was  granted  on  March  29,  1898, 
and  the  line  was  surveyed  some  little  time  since. 
Another  British  project  of  considerable  importance 
which  seems  to  hang  fire  is  the  Shanghai-Nanking 
Railway,  which  is  designed,  by  a  line  some  210  miles 
long,  to  connect  the  great  international  treaty  port 
with  the  well-known  trading  city  on  the  Yangtse 
River.  The  preliminary  arrangement  for  this 
concession  was  obtained  by  the  British  and  Chinese 
Corporation  in  1898,  and  the  final  agreement  was 
signed  on  July  9th,  1903.  It  is  a  guaranteed  line, 
and  therefore  in  a  specially  favourable  position ; 
yet,  notwithstanding  that  the  survey  of  the  line 
has  been  completed,  and,  it  is  understood,  estimates 
of  cost  have  been  prepared,  the  work,  for  some 
reason,  the  exact  nature  of  which  I  have  not  been 
able  to  ascertain,  has  not  been  started.  Some  say 
that  the  delay  is  attributable  to  difficulties  raised  by 
the  Chinese  authorities  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
work  is  to  be  carried  out,  others  aver  that,  owing 


1 66  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

to  the  state  of  the  money  market,  there  is  a 
difficulty  in  financing  the  scheme.  The  fact,  how- 
ever, remains  that  actual  construction  has  not  yet 
been  put  in  hand. 

The  British  and  Chinese  Corporation  hold  three 
other  notable  railway  concessions,  which,  generally 
speaking,  are  still  to  a  considerable  extent  on  paper. 
There  is,  first,  a  line  of  200  miles  from  Suchau 
to  Hangchau,  and  thence  on  to  Ning-po.  The 
concession  for  this  was  granted  at  the  same  time  as 
that  for  the  Shanghai-Nanking  Railway.  Secondly, 
we  have  a  line  which  starts  from  Pukou — a  point 
on  the  Yangtse  opposite  Nanking — and  terminates 
at  Sinyang  on  the  Luhan  Railway.  A  party  of 
engineers  is  now  engaged  on  a  survey  of  the  line. 
Completing  this  trio  of  projects  is  a  railway  from 
Pukou  to  the  southern  border  of  Shantung.  This 
line  has  a  total  length  of  about  225  miles,  but  about 
a  hundred  miles  of  it  is  common  to  it  and  the 
Pukou-Sinyang  line  just  mentioned.  That  is  to  say, 
the  latter  enterprise  will  branch  off  at  a  point  on 
this  line  about  a  hundred  miles  distant  from  Pukou. 
The  concession  for  this  line  was  obtained  by  the 
British  and  Chinese  Corporation,  presumably  in 
1898,  and  on  similar  terms  to  those  of  the  Pukou- 
Sinyang  line.  The  line  is  now  being  surveyed, 
but  no  construction  work  has  been  started.  It 
may  be  mentioned   that  under  a  recent  agreement 


The  Pckin  Syndicate  167 

all  railway  concessions  obtained  by  the  British  and 
Chinese  Corporation  and  the  Pekin  Syndicate  north 
of  the  Yangtse  River  are  to  be  financed  and  worked 
on  joint  account.  The  railway  of  the  Pekin 
Syndicate  from  Taokou  in  Ho-nan  to  Tsechau  in 
Shansi  is  not,  however,  included  in  this  agreement. 

I  now  come  to  deal  with  what  are  decidedly  the 
most  promising  concessions  in  British  hands — those 
of  the  Pekin  Syndicate — the  enterprise  alluded  to 
in  the  foregoing  paragraph.  This  corporation, 
alike  from  the  importance  of  the  interests  en- 
trusted to  it  and  from  the  energy  and  foresight 
with  which  it  has  prosecuted  them,  deserves  some- 
what lengthened  reference.  Like  many  (it  may  be 
said  most)  important  British  undertakings  for  the 
opening  up  of  foreign  countries,  the  Pekin  Syndicate 
had  its  origin  in  small  beginnings.  Its  creator 
may  be  said  to  have  been  Chevalier  (now  Com- 
mendatore)  Luzzatti,  an  Italian  gentleman  of  ex- 
ceptional business  ability,  who,  in  the  earliest  days 
of  the  movement  for  the  commercial  development 
of  China,  foreseeing  the  vast  possibilities  that  there 
were  in  the  acquisition  of  concessions,  persuaded 
some  of  the  leading  men  in  the  British  financial 
world  to  send  him  out  to  Pekin  to  obtain  the  best 
he  could  of  what  might  be  going.  Backed  by  a 
powerful  group  of  financiers,  he  proceeded  in 
1897    to    the   Chinese    capital.     There   he   worked 


1 68  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

with  an  energy,  tact,  and  patience  which  in  the 
long  run  overcame  all  obstacles  and  gained  for  the 
Syndicate  which  he  represented  what,  all  things 
considered,  is  probably  the  finest  concession  which 
has  yet  been  granted  by  the  Chinese  Government. 
The  character  of  the  property  is  disclosed  in  a 
letter  which  the  Chevalier  brought  home  from  Li 
Hung  Chang  : 

It  is  indeed  a  relief  to  turn  from  the  many  schemes 
for  the  political  exploitation  of  China  to  consider  one 
purely  industrial  and  devoted  to  the  arts  of  peace.  The 
Ministers  of  the  Tsung  Li  Yamen  hope  that  this  first 
experiment  to  encourage  the  profitable  investment  of 
foreign  capital  in  the  interior  of  China  will  realise  their 
expectations  of  benefit  to  Government  and  people,  and 
help  to  provide  the  "  open  door "  of  which  we  hear  so 
much  and  see  so  little. 

The  two  contracts  made  with  your  Syndicate,  after 
much  Conservative  opposition,  apply  to  a  large  and  con- 
tinuous area  of  rich  mineral  lands  in  the  province  of 
Shansi  on  the  west,  and  Ho-nan  on  the  south  of  the 
metropolitan  province  of  Chihli,  with  rights  to  construct 
branch  railways  to  connect  mines  with  main  lines  and 
river  navigation  in  adjoining  provinces. 

For  abundance  of  coal  and  iron  in  close  proximity 
to  each  other  there  is  no  other  part  of  China — and  few 
parts  of  the  world,  experts  say — to  compare  in  import- 
ance with  the  region  now  opened  to  the  Syndicate  ; 
petroleum  has  been  discovered,  and  the  Syndicate  may 
work  that  wherever  found  in  or  near  their  concession. 

With  cheap  and  plentiful  iron  and  coal  the  Syndicate 
can  establish  iron    works   on  the   spot   to   supply   the 


<    Q 


<  z 


2  " 

2  z 

H 
U 


OUTSIDE   A   CHINESE   RAILWAY  STATION. 


[To  face  p.  i6g. 


Resources  of  the  Shansi  Coal-field      169 

enormous  demand  for  manufactured  iron  and  steel 
in  every  form  required  by  China  now  and  as  she 
progresses. 

The  extensive  area  assigned  to  the  Syndicate  will 
in  the  near  future  be  extended  in  the  province  of 
Ho-nan,  south  of  the  Yellow  River,  as  soon  as  the 
Syndicate  has  proved  its  capability. 

There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  in  his 
estimate  of  the  value  of  the  concessions  carried  to 
London  by  Chevalier  Luzzatti,  Li  Hung  Chang 
did  not  exaggerate.  It  is  probable  that  China  has  no 
richer  mineral  area  than  that  covered  by  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Syndicate  and  embraced  in  the  populous 
province  of  Shansi.  Its  enormous  potentialities 
are  strikingly  brought  out  in  the  great  work  of 
Baron  Ferdinand  von  Richthofen,  the  eminent 
geologist,  who  thoroughly  explored  this  part  of  the 
country  and  who  is  the  standard  scientific  authority 
on  North  China.  The  baron,  after  mentioning  that 
his  estimate  of  the  coal  area  is  13,470  English  square 
miles,  proceeds  : 

As  there  is  no  interruption  over  this  entire  stretch 
in  the  continuity  of  the  coal  strata,  and  as  at  every 
point  where  the  formation  is  visible  at  least  40  ft.  of 
workable  coal  may  be  assumed  to  exist,  a  probable 
minimum  quantity  for  the  whole  area  of  630,000,000,000 
tons  of  coal  may  readily  be  reckoned  on.  In  this 
calculation  I  have  taken  the  anthracite  to  have  a 
thickness  of  12  metres  and  a  specific  weight  of  I'S- 
Both  figures  are  in  all  probability  too  low ;  but  even  at 


170  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

these  figures  the  anthracite  would  suffice  to  cover  the 
coal  consumption  of  the  world  at  its  present  rate 
(300,000,000  tons  annually)  for  a  period  of  2,100  years. 
Remembering,  then,  that  only  the  most  excellent 
anthracite  is  met  with,  that  a  seam  of  1 5  ft.  to  20  ft, 
though  more  often  20  ft.  to  30  ft.,  in  thickness  exists, 
that  the  stratification  may  be  considered  as  undisturbed, 
and  that  on  all  sides,  particularly  on  the  east — in  con- 
sequence of  the  conformation  of  the  exterior  surface — 
the  coal  strata  are  exposed,  and,  further,  that  this 
formation  is  accompanied  by  an  extraordinary  wealth 
of  superb  iron  ore,  it  may  be  contended  that  this  coal 
region  has  not  its  equal  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
Where  in  a  line  of  180  geographical  miles  long — as,  for 
instance,  between  Yang  Tshong  Hsien  and  Yu  Hsien — 
you  are  at  almost  every  point  bound  to  cut  immediately 
into  a  vein  of  pure  anthracite  from  15  ft.  to  30  ft.  in 
thickness,  there  an  unlimited  supply  of  fuel  is  to  be 
had  at  greater  cheapness  than  in  any  other  known 
region. 

Baron  Richthofen,  in  further  remarks,  ventures 
on  the  prophecy  that  in  course  of  time  there  will 
be  built  up  in  Shansi  *'  a  mining  industry  of  a 
unique  kind."  His  words  are  not  the  mere  out- 
pourings of  a  visionary.  All  investigation  that  has 
been  made  points  to  the  value  of  this  area.  To- 
wards the  end  of  1898  an  expedition  under  the 
charge  of  Mr.  J.  G.  H.  Glass,  CLE.,  M.Inst., 
C.E.,  late  "chief  engineer  and  Secretary  to  Govern- 
ment, Public  Works  Department,  Bengal,  was 
despatched    to    China   to   survey   the    area   of    the 


British  Commercial  Mission  to  Shansi     171 

concession  and  report  to  the  Board  in  London  upon 
it.  Mr.  Glass's  report,  which  lies  before  me,  is  an 
intensely  interesting  compilation,  bringing  into  vivid 
perspective  the  mining  country  in  the  provinces 
of  Shansi  and  Ho-nan  as  seen  with  the  eyes  of  an 
expert.  Necessarily  the  dry,  scientific  facts  to  be 
looked  for  in  a  business  report  predominate  ;  but 
there  are  interspersed  with  the  professional  matter 
many  graphic  little  descriptions  which  throw  an 
interesting  light  on  the  conditions  of  life  in  the 
interior  of  China  and  the  attitude  of  the  population 
towards  the  new  ideas  which  are  leavening  the 
vast  mass  of  Chinese  conservatism.  Here  is  one 
passage  which  is  opposed  to  the  generally  received 
notion  that  the  natives  of  the  interior  are  fanatically 
opposed  to  Western  innovations  : 

We  mixed  freely  with  the  people,  and  never  ex- 
perienced the  slightest  rudeness  or  incivility.  Indeed, 
they  welcomed  us  cordially  and  evinced  the  greatest 
interest  in  our  expedition.  We  were  asked  many 
questions  through  our  interpreters  as  to  the  objects  of 
the  mission,  and  when  they  were  told  that  one  of  our 
objects  was  to  open  up  the  country  with  railways  they 
expressed  the  greatest  delight  at  the  prospect.  A 
judicious  distribution  of  tobacco  and  sweets  was  much 
appreciated,  and  helped  to  create  a  favourable  im- 
pression of  us  amongst  them.  I  had  been  led  to  under- 
stand that  it  would  not  be  safe  to  go  amongst  the 
people  unarmed,  and  was  advised  always  to  carry  a 
revolver.     I   got  one,  and  each  European  of  the  party 


172  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

also  had  one,  but  from  the  time  I  packed  it  up  in  my 
kit,  till  I  returned  to  Pekin,  I  did  not  see  it.  I  had 
nothing  but  a  walking-stick  all  the  time  I  was  in  the 
interior,  and  wanted  nothing  more.  The  only  grievance 
we  had,  and  that  a  very  minor  one,  was  the  insatiable 
curiosity  displayed  by  the  people.  They  were  curious 
about  everything ;  our  garments,  boots,  saddlery, 
excited  their  wonder,  and  crowds  collected  at  the 
entrance  to  the  inns  to  watch  our  every  movement,  but 
they  were  always  well  behaved,  placid,  friendly,  and 
respectful. 

In  another  portion  of  the  narrative  a  pleasing 
incident  is  mentioned  which  occurred  at  Huai  King 
in  Ho-nan,  illustrative  of  the  honour  in  which  the 
name  of  General  Gordon  is  still  held  in  the  interior 
of  China.  The  military  mandarin  commanding  the 
forces  in  that  part  of  the  country,  hearing  of  the 
arrival  of  Englishmen,  sent  a  message  to  say  that 
he  would  like  to  call  to  offer  them  a  welcome  ;  he 
accordingly  called  the  following  morning,  attended 
by  a  large  retinue. 

We  found  him,  Mr.  Glass  says,  a  most  courtly 
and  pleasant-spoken  old  gentleman.  He  said  he  had 
served  under  General  Gordon — or  Gorton,  as  he  pro- 
nounced it — in  the  suppression  of  the  Taiping  Rebellion, 
and  entertained  the  highest  respect  and  admiration  for 
his  great  qualities  both  as  a  man  and  a  soldier  ;  and 
that  it  was  the  high  appreciation  he  felt  for  the  great 
services  rendered  to  China  by  our  countryman  which 
induced  him  to  make  our  acquaintance.  He  fought  his 
battles  over  again  and  spoke  eloquently  and  feelingly 


Richness  of  Coal  Deposits  173 

of  the  great  qualities  of  his  revered  commander.  No 
greater  tribute  of  respect  to  the  memory  of  a  good  man 
could  have  been  paid  than  this.  He  extended  to  us 
the  hand  of  friendship  merely  because  we  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  the  countrymen  of  General  Gordon,  whom 
he  loved.  It  was  to  me  most  touching  and  I  could 
not  repress  a  feeling  of  pride  on  hearing  the  great 
Gordon  spoken  of  in  such  high  terms  by  one  who 
loved  and  respected  him,  not  only  for  his  valuable 
services  to  China,  but  for  himself. 

Travelling  over  execrable  roads,  the  worst  he 
has  seen  anywhere,  Mr.  Glass  declares,  he  and  his 
party  eventually  reached  the  locus  in  quo.  It 
fully  answered  the  most  sanguine  expectations 
formed  of  it.  Everywhere  on  the  journey,  from 
the  north  of  Shansi  to  the  south,  coal  was  prominent. 

If  we  did  not  see  it  cropping  out  at  the  sides  of 
hills  and  in  the  valleys,  it  was  still  everywhere  in 
evidence,  for  it  was  being  carried  on  the  br.cks  of 
mules  and  donkeys  to  distant  markets.  At  all  the 
towns  in  the  coal  region  it  is  freely  used  by  the  people, 
and  at  every  inn  we  stopped  at  it  is  used  for  cooking 
and  general  purposes.  It  emits  practically  no  smoke, 
has  a  slight  but  clear  flame,  does  not  alter  much  in 
form  and  leaves  very  little  ash. 

From  what  he  saw,  Mr.  Glass  has  no  hesitation 
in  saying  that  a  detailed  examination  of  the  coal 
deposits  of  this  region  will  show  that  it  contains 
possibly  the  largest  known  coal-field  in  the  world 
and    that  the   coal   generally   is  of  a   very   superior 


1 74  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

quality,  suitable  without  preparation  for  smelting 
purposes  as  well  as  for  use  in  engines. 

This  estimate  of  the  extraordinary  richness 
of  the  coal  measures  in  the  Shansi  district  is 
fully  supported  by  the  evidence  furnished  by 
the  investigations  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Shockley,  an 
American  engineer  of  great  experience,  who  had 
earlier  made  a  tour  in  this  area.  This  gentle- 
man's report  reads  almost  like  a  fairy-tale,  yet  it 
is  only  a  sober  relation  of  facts  which  came  under 
his  notice.  Describing  the  methods  of  mining 
adopted  at  a  large  mine  in  the  vicinity  of  Tse- 
chau,  he  mentions  having  seen  one  block  of  coal 
that  had  just  fallen  which  was  50  ft.  by  30  ft. 
by  12  ft.  thick,  or  over  a  thousand  tons  in 
weight.  In  regard  to  anthracite  coal,  while  he  will 
not  venture  upon  the  number  of  tons  of  coal  avail- 
able in  the  deposits  in  the  Shansi  district,  he  says, 
"  It  is  absolutely  certain  that  they  contain  enough 
coal  to  supply  the  whole  world  for  many  generations 
to  come."  As  to  bituminous  coal,  in  the  district 
of  Ping  Yang  Fu,  *'  it  is  perfectly  safe  to  say  that 
the  supply  is  practically  unlimited." 

Besides  these  remarkable  coal  deposits,  Shansi 
possesses,  chiefly  in  the  Tsechau  region,  rich 
deposits  of  iron  ore  of  a  superior  quality.  For 
centuries,  it  is  said  for  more  than  a  thousand  years, 
the  district  has  been  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  native 


Shansi  Iron  175 

industry.  Iron,  manufactured  by  rude  methods  in 
small  establishments,  each  of  which  makes  a 
speciality  of  a  certain  set  of  articles  for  which  it  has 
gained  a  reputation,  is  sent  to  many  parts  of  China  ; 
and  it  is  stated  by  Baron  Richthofen  that  the 
Chinese  prefer  the  Shansi  wrought  iron  to  the 
imported  European  article,  if  the  prices  of  both 
are  equal. 

It  is  evident,  remarks  the  baron,  that  the  great 
success  which  the  iron  manufacturers  of  Tsechau  attain, 
by  application  of  the  apparently  rudest  methods,  must 
be  due,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  superiority  of 
material  they  supply.  It  is  the  few  hundred  feet  of 
productive  coal  formation  which  furnishes  them  an 
abundance  of  every  kind  of  material  they  require : 
firstly,  an  iron  of  great  purity,  rich  in  metal  and  easily 
fusible ;  secondly,  all  sorts  of  clay  and  sand,  such  as 
are  required  for  crucibles,  moulds,  etc. ;  thirdly,  a  very 
superior  anthracite. 

Analytical  tests  made  of  samples  of  the  ores 
taken  personally  by  Mr.  Glass  from  large  stacks  at 
Tai  Yang,  where  smelting  furnaces  were  at  work, 
fully  supported  tne  opinion  expressed  by  Baron 
Richthofen.  The  verdict  given  by  an  eminent 
authority  at  home  was  that  the  ore  was  *'  of  ex- 
cellent quality  for  smelting  purposes,  the  yield  of 
metal    being  equal  to  that  of  good  Spanish  ore." 

The  value  of  the  deposits,  whether  of  coal  or  iron, 
in  Shansi  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  extraordinary 


iy6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

cheapness  and  abundance  of  labour  in  the  mining 
region.  The  wages  range  from  2^d.  to  2^-  P^"* 
diem  for  unskilled  labour,  to  is.  6d.  per  day  for 
the  superior  class  of  workmen.  Shansi  wrought 
iron,  which  is  made  from  the  cast  by  heating  with 
wood,  is  now  sold  on  the  spot  at  ^^2  ioj.  per  ton. 
With  improved  methods  it  could  beyond  doubt  be 
produced  at  a  much  lower  price.  As  to  cast  iron, 
a  careful  estimate  made  by  Mr.  Glass,  based  on 
ascertained  data,  shows  that  while  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing a  ton  of  pig-iron  at  Pittsburgh,  in  America, 
is  ^i  \2s.  5|-^.,  and  at  Middlesborough  £2  12s.  2d., 
at  Tai  Yang,  in  Shansi,  it  is  not  more  than  12s.  i^d. 
It  is  needless  to  emphasise  the  significance  of  these 
figures. 

It  was  hoped  at  one  time  that  valuable  petroleum 
deposits  would  be  discovered  in  Shansi,  but  in- 
vestigation did  not  encourage  the  building  up  of 
any  great  hopes  of  developments  occurring  in  this 
direction.  It  exists  undoubtedly  in  the  neigh- 
bouring province  of  Shensi,  but  in  Shansi  itself  no 
surface  indications  of  the  presence  of  the  oil  have  yet 
been  discovered.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  Shansi  alone  embraces  an  area  of  over  50,000 
square  miles  and  that  for  the  most  part  this  is  still, 
for  scientific  purposes,  an  unexplored  region.  It 
may  therefore  very  well  happen  that  at  some  future 
day    the    deposits   of  which    rumour   has    been    so 


British  Mining  in  Shansi  177 

persistent  may  be  revealed.  Meanwhile,  however,  the 
proper  development  of  the  coal  and  iron  resources, 
in  conjunction  with  the  prosecution  of  railway 
schemes  necessary  to  the  opening  up  of  the  province, 
will  supply  work  which  will  tax  the  energies  of 
the  operators  to  the  utmost. 

An  earnest  of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  proposed 
to  utilise  the  enormous  privileges  conferred  by  the 
concession  is  provided  by  the  efforts  already  made 
to  secure  an  outlet  for  the  minerals  by  the  construc- 
tion of  railways.  The  initial  scheme  undertaken  was 
a  comparatively  modest  one.  It  was  for  the  running 
of  a  line  from  Taokou  in  Ho-nan,  a  town  on  the 
Wei  River,  to  Tsechau  in  Shansi.  The  latter  place 
is  the  great  centre  of  the  coal  and  iron  district,  and 
Taokou  is  in  water  communication,  by  means  of 
the  Wei  River  and  the  Grand  Canal,  with  Tientsin. 
The  concession  for  the  project  was  obtained  in 
1896.  In  1900  a  staff  of  engineers  was  sent  out 
to  commence  the  work  of  construction.  The  Boxer 
troubles,  however,  intervened  to  upset  the  arrange- 
ments ;  and  it  was  not  until  1902  that  it  was 
possible  to  make  a  proper  start.  When  at  length 
the  way  was  cleared,  rapid  progress  was  made.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  all  the  material  for  the  line, 
such  as  rails,  sleepers,  bridge-girders,  and  rolling 
stock,  has  had  to  be  conveyed  from  Tientsin 
over     six    hundred    miles    of     river     and     canal, 

12 


1 78  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

75  of  the  1 20  miles  of  the  line  have  been 
completed,  and  trains  are  actually  running  over 
this  section,  while  twenty-one  additional  miles  are 
in  hand.  Within  a  few  months,  if  nothing  un- 
toward occurs,  the  whole  scheme  will  be  completed, 
and  the  Syndicate  will  be  free  to  turn  its  attention 
to  other  and  more  wide-reaching  projects  of  railway 
extension. 

Meanwhile  the  coal  deposits  are  being  exploited 
with  energy  in  the  Chinghwa  coal-field  in  Ho-nan. 
Already  what  was  a  bare  field  a  few  months  ago 
is  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  British  settlement. 
The  operations  are  conducted  on  the  most  approved 
Western  lines.  Two  shafts  are  being  sunk  to 
reach  the  coal,  which  borings  have  shown  is  met 
at  a  depth  of  650  ft.,  and  so  far  as  can  be  judged 
they  will  be  completed  by  the  end  of  the  current 
year,  when  coal  will  be  won.  A  siding  connects 
the  colliery  with  the  railway  to  Taokou.  Powerful 
pumping  machinery  has  been  introduced  to  cope 
with  the  water  met  with  in  sinking,  and  all  the 
appliances  and  machinery  used  in  the  works  are 
of  the  most  recent  and  approved  description.  In 
short,  a  promising  beginning  has  been  made  with 
a  great  enterprise. 

Had  not  circumstances  occurred  to  circumscribe 
the  work,  there  is  little  doubt  that  a  further  im- 
portant   railway    project  would    have   been   well  in 


Chinese  Obstruction  179 

hand  by  now.  As  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at 
the  accompanying  map,  the  Taokou-Tsechau  line  is, 
to  a  large  extent,  "  in  the  air."  It  provides  an 
outlet  of  a  kind  by  way  of  the  Wei  River  and 
the  Grand  Canal  to  Tientsin,  but  that  is  entirely 
inadequate  for  the  vast  trade  which  may  be  looked 
for  with  confidence  from  the  concession.  The 
regulations  agreed  to  by  the  Chinese  Government 
directly  contemplate  the  necessity  of  establishing 
communication  with  the  sea.  The  salient  clause 
(17)  is  as  follows  : 

Whenever  it  may  be  necessary  for  any  mine  to 
make  roads,  build  bridges,  open  or  deepen  rivers  or 
canals,  or  construct  branch  railways  to  connect  with 
main  lines  or  with  water  navigation  to  facilitate  trans- 
port of  Ho-nan  coal,  iron,  and  all  other  mine  products 
from  the  province,  the  Syndicate,  on  reporting  to  the 
Governor  of  Ho-nan,  is  authorised  to  proceed  with  the 
works,  using  its  own  capital  without  asking  for  Govern- 
ment funds. 

This  is  perfectly  explicit.  The  grantees  are  to 
be  at  liberty  to  '*  construct  branch  railways  to 
connect  with  main  lines  or  with  water  navigation  " 
wherever  such  action  Ts  necessary  to  facilitate  the 
transport  of  the  mineral  products  of  the  concession 
area.  In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  clause, 
there  was  applied  for,  and  obtained,  in  1899,  a 
concession  to    build  a  railway  from   a  point  at,  or 


i8o  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

near,  Kaifeng,  on  the  Luhan  Railway,  to  Su,  where 
it  would  connect  with  the  Shantung  Border  Railway, 
on  the  Pukou.  The  object  of  the  line  is  to 
connect  the  coal  and  iron  mines  in  Ho-nan  and 
Shansi  with  the  Yangtse  River  at  the  town  of  Pukou. 
It  is  the  most  direct  route  to  the  sea  from  the 
mines  and  is  essential  for  the  full  development 
of  the  property.  The  Chinese  Government  agreed 
in  principle  to  the  construction  of  this  line,  but 
nothing  definite  has  yet  been  settled  in  regard  to 
commencing  it.  The  fact  of  the  matter  is  that 
the  project  has  been  blocked  by  the  influence  of 
foreign  Powers,  exercised  deliberately,  it  would  seem, 
to  prevent  the  concessionaires  from  realising  the 
full  possibilities  of  their  estate  and  at  the  same 
time  to  push  their  own  schemes  in  what  has  been 
again  and  again  laid  down  as  our  sphere  of 
influence.  Under  a  strong  and  far-seeing  British 
policy  such  a  state  of  affairs  would  not  have 
been  tolerated  for  a  day.  The  Chinese  Govern- 
ment would  have  been  kept  to  the  clear  terms  of 
their  compact  and  they  would,  furthermore,  have 
been  given  to  understand  that  in  no  circumstances 
should  we  permit  the  granting  to  foreigners  of 
privileges  deliberately  designed  to  neutralise  the 
advantages,  properly  accruing,  of  the  enterprise. 
Unfortunately  the  needs  of  the  situation  have  not 
been  recognised  as  they  ought  to  have  been.     Our 


A  Call  for  Firm  Action  i8i 

attitude  has  been  alternately  one  of  aloofness, 
apathy  and  drift,  with  the  natural  and  inevitable 
consequence  that  power  has  been  given  to  the 
intrigues  of  the  rivals  of  this  country  and  the 
Chinese  Government  has  felt  itself  able  to  decline 
stolidly  to  make  any  move.  I  cannot  suppose  that 
the  Government  will  permit  the  obstruction  to 
have  permanent  results.  It  is  not  a  simple  matter 
of  the  rights  of  a  trading  company.  British 
prestige  demands  that  the  Pekin  authorities  shall 
adhere  to  the  letter,  as  well  as  the  spirit,  of  this 
agreement  by  giving  their  consent  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  line. 


CHAPTER    XII 

FOREIGN  RAILWAY  CONCESSIONS — FRENCH  AND  RUSSIAN  PRO- 
JECTS— A  GREAT  AMERICAN  ENTERPRISE — GERMAN  LINES 
— DETAILS   OF  CONCESSIONS 

MUCH  as  there  is  for  congratulation  in  the 
prospects  of  British  trade  in  China,  as  we 
have  seen  in  the  previous  chapter,  when  we  come 
to  survey  the  whole  field  of  railway  development 
we  find  circumstances  which  are  not  altogether 
gratifying  to  the  national  amour  propre.  The 
foreigner,  represented  by  the  Russian,  the  French,  the 
German  and  the  Belgian,  has  been  remarkably  busy 
in  picking  up  what  at  one  time  were  the  uncon- 
sidered trifles  of  concessions  for  great  railway  pro- 
jects. While  our  diplomatists  slumbered  and  slept, 
or  looked  somewhat  superciliously  on  the  scramble 
for  the  rich  crumbs  which  were  falling  from  the 
mandarin's  table,  the  representatives  of  other  Powers 
were  singularly  wideawake  and  got  hold  of  some 
exceptionally  good  things.  There  was  no  delusion 
.about  regarding  a  concession  for  a  railway  as  a 
mere   trade  concern.       Under  all  the  schemes  was 

182 


The  Luhan  Railway  183 

a  definite  political  purpose  and  the  commercial 
advantage  was  striven  for  as  an  instrument  in  the 
attainment  of  that  purpose.  Now  the  situation  is 
better  understood  in  our  Foreign  Office  and  there 
is  no  longer  the  risk  there  once  was  of  the  political 
ground  being  cut  from  under  our  feet  by  some 
insidious  diplomatic  intrigue  dressed  in  the  innocent 
guise  of  a  project  for  railway  development.  But 
the  ground  lost  in  the  first  instance  is  impossible 
of  recovery  :  a  foothold  has  been  gained  by  our 
rivals  in  several  directions,  from  which  they  cannot 
be  ousted.  The  most  that  we  can  now  do  is  by 
judicious  co-operation  and  energy  to  endeavour  to 
counteract  influences  which,  if  permitted  full  play, 
would  be  disastrous  to  our  interests. 

One  of  the  earliest,  as  it  is  also  the  greatest,  of 
the  foreign  railway  schemes  is  that  for  the  Pekin- 
Hankow  line,  which  runs  directly  south  from  the 
capital  for  700  miles  until  it  reaches  the  great  town 
in  the  Yangtse  basin.  This  is  generally  known  as 
the  Luhan  Railway.  In  the  year  1896  a  Chinese 
Imperial  edict  sanctioned  the  pursuance  of  a  more 
extended  policy  of  railway  construction,  appointing 
His  Excellency  Sheng  Hung  Shuen  Director- 
General  of  Railways  with  special  reference  to  the 
immediate  construction  of  a  north  and  south 
trunk  line  from  Pekin  to  Hankow  on  the  Yangtse 
River. 


184  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

In    1896   a  group  of  Belgian  financiers  formed  a 
company  for  the  study  of  railways   in  China,  and, 
aided  by  the   quiet  support  of  France  and  also,  it 
is  said,  of  Russia,  obtained  in   1898  the  concession 
for  constructing  this  line.      The  Chinese    Govern- 
ment  issued  a  gold   loan  of  ^4,500,000,  of  which 
^2,500,000   was    offered   to   the   public   in    April, 
1899,  and  the  balance  was  issued  in  March,   1902. 
This   was   too  large  an   undertaking  for  the  small 
money  market  of  Belgium,  and  it  was  arranged  that 
France  should  take  up  one-third  of  the   loan    on 
condition  that  an  important  part  of  the  orders  for 
plant,  etc.,  should  go  to  French  manufacturers.     In 
addition,  France  promised  to  help  the  undertaking 
diplomatically.     The  line  is  said   now  to  be  more 
French  than  Belgian.     M.  Cailleux,  French  Finance 
Minister,  in  a  speech  to  the   Chamber  of  Deputies 
in  1 901,  said,  "The  Pekin-Hankow  Railway  being 
an    essentially    French    affair,     I     have    asked    the 
company  to  employ  a  larger  number  of   our  com- 
patriots and  to  dismiss  foreigners."       Construction 
was  commenced  in   1898-9,  but  was  stopped  during 
the   *'  Boxer "    troubles,    when    some   damage    was 
done  to    the  works   by  tearing    up    rails   and   the 
destruction    of  a   few   minor    bridges.      The    sum, 
however,    set   aside   as    indemnity    for    the    injury 
done  to   the  works,  etc.,  by    the     Boxers     was    no 
less    than    26,000,000    francs.       Work    was    pro- 


Present  Position  of  Luhan  Railway     185 

ceeded  with  from  Hankow  and  Pekin  simultaneously. 
From  Pekin  to  Chengting  (where  the  Russian 
line  to  Tai  Yuan  branches  off),  a  length  of 
about  150  miles,  the  line  was  opened  about  a 
year  or  more  ago,  and  was  being  pushed  for- 
ward vigorously  towards  the  Yellow  River,  which 
is  crossed  at  about  380  miles  from  Pekin.  It 
was  expected  that  the  line  would  have  been  carried 
as  far  as  Changte,  some  292  miles  from  Pekin  and 
88  miles  north  of  the  Yellow  River,  by  about  the 
end  of  1903.  The  distance  from  the  Yellow 
River  to  Hankow  is  about  300  miles.  From 
recent  information  it  is  understood  that  the  line 
from  the  north  will  reach  the  Yellow  River  by 
April,  1905,  and  from  the  south  in  July,  1904. 
It  is  further  mentioned  that  the  bridge  over  the 
Yellow  River  will  be  completed  by  January,  1906. 
If  this  is  the  case,  there  will  be  through  com- 
munication between  Pekin  and  Hankow  early 
in   1906. 

An  arm  of  this  great  line,  and  practically  a  part 
of  the  scheme,  is  a  railway  153  miles  long  from 
Chengting,  some  two  hundred  miles  south  of 
Pekin  to  Tai  Yuan  in  Shensi.  This  concession  was 
obtained  by  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank  in  1898.  A 
condition  was  that  construction  was  to  be  begun 
within  two  years  from  April  26,  1898;  otherwise 
the  agreement  was  to  be  null  and  void.     An  edict 


1 86  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

was  issued  by  the  Chinese  Government  on  Octo- 
ber 13,  1902,  sanctioning  the  raising  of  a  loan  in 
Paris  of  40,000,000  francs,  negotiated  by  Sheng, 
Director-General  of  Chinese  Railways,  with  the 
Russian  Bank  for  the  construction  of  this  railway 
on  conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  Luhan  (Franco- 
Belgian)  contract.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
original  agreement  had  expired  ;  but  the  Russians 
not  only  got  it  renewed,  but  they  improved  upon 
the  original  terms  :  for  whereas  there  was  formerly 
no  Chinese  Government  guarantee,  the  line  is  now 
granted  to  the  Russians  with  a  guarantee.^  British 
engineers  who  have  been  over  the  alignment  to  be 
followed  by  this  railway  state  that  the  country  is 
so  difficult  that  a  4'8J"  gauge  line  of  the  character 
contemplated  cannot  be  properly  built  and  equipped 
for  the  sum  provided. 

With  the  prospectus  issued  in  Paris,  when  the 
loan  was,  it  is  said,  subscribed  three  times  over, 
there  was  a  map  showing  that  the  railway  was 
eventually  to  be  extended  from  Tai  Yuan  down 
the  valley  of  the  Fen  River  to  the  Yellow  River, 
where  it  would  pass  near  to,  if  not  through,  Tung 
Kwan,  a  place  of  great  strategical  importance 
to  which  I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  in  the 
next  chapter,  and  from  there  on  to  Sian,  the 
ancient   capital  of  China,   to  which    the    Court    of 

*  Times,  Saturday,  October  18,  1902. 


American  Enterprise  187 

China  fled  when  the  allies  occupied  Pekin  during 
the  '* Boxer"  troubles.  The  distance  from  Tai 
Yuan  to  Sian  is  about  four  hundred  miles,  and  the 
country  generally  most  difficult.  The  ultimate 
object  of  this  line  is  unquestionably  Sze-chuan. 

In  the  foregoing  enterprises  the  influence  of  Russia 
and  France  is  plainly  visible.  In  the  next  project 
to  be  noticed  we  have,  introduced  upon  the  scene, 
the  great  Republic  of  the  West.  Our  American 
cousins,  with  characteristic  love  of  big  things,  have 
fathered  an  undertaking  which  in  point  of  mileage 
is  greater  than  any  other  individual  railway  scheme 
in  hand  at  the  present  moment  in  China.  It  is  the 
Hankow-Canton  Railway,  a  line  which  is  practically 
a  continuation  south  of  the  Luhan  Railway.  It 
has  a  length  of  918  miles,  and  when  completed 
will  enable  a  traveller  to  make  a  continuous 
journey  south  from  Pekin  by  railway  for  over  1,400 
miles.  The  concession  has  been  granted  to  the 
American  China  Development  Company,  who  have 
agreed  to  provide  ^^  5,000,000  sterling,  or  more  if 
required,  for  the  building  and  equipment  of  it. 
Imperial  Chinese  Gold  Bonds  are  issued,  or  to  be 
issued,  covering  the  loan,  and  carrying  5  per  cent, 
interest,  payable  half-yearly.  Bonds  are  to  be  taken 
at  90  per  cent,  of  par  value.  The  date  of  the 
preliminary  contract  is  April  14,  1898.  The  distance 
from  Wuchang  (south  of  the  Yangtse  and  opposite 


1 88  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

to  Hankow)  to  Canton  is  740  miles.  In  addition, 
there  are  branch  lines  to  Ping  Hsiang,  66  miles  ; 
to  Yoh  Chou,  25  miles  ;  to  Siang  Tang,  9  miles  ; 
these  with  sidings  78  miles  gives  the  total  length 
of  918  miles.  The  survey  of  the  whole  line  was 
completed  some  time  ago,  and  construction  is 
going  on,  though  with  no  great  vigour.  Eleven 
miles  of  the  railway  between  Canton  and  Fatshan 
were  opened  on  November  4,  1903.  It  is  said 
that  the  Belgians  have  subscribed  to  this  under- 
taking to  the  extent  of  two-thirds  of  the  total,  and 
that  King  Leopold  is  largely  interested  in  it. 
It  is  also  said  that  the  Belgians  have  been  put 
forward  by  the  Russians  and  the  French  to  represent 
them.^ 

In  their  own  sphere  the  French  are  exceedingly 
active.  Their  railway  schemes  in  the  provinces  of 
Kuangtung,  Tongking,  and  Yunnan  embrace  a  total 
mileage  of  800.  In  addition,  they  are  contemplating 
an  extension  350  miles  long  to  Siu  Fu,  on  the 
Yangtse  River  in  Sze-chuan,  where  it  is  under- 
stood they  have  purchased  nine  miles  along  the 
river  frontage.  Yet  another  project  is  the  line 
from  I-chang  to  Chungking  in  Sze-chuan.  It  is 
understood  that  the  French  Government  have 
given  a  guarantee  for  the  construction  of  railways 
*  North  China  Herald^  May  14  and  July  31,  1903. 


Line  from  Kaifcng  to  Ho^nan         189 

in  Yunnan,  so  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  finding 
money.  Considerable  progress  is  believed  to  have 
been  made  with  the  line,  which,  when  completed, 
will  add  350  miles  to  the  lines  standing  to  the 
French  account. 

A  first-cousin  to  the  French  schemes,  if  it  cannot 
actually  be  included  in  them,  is  a  comparatively 
short  line  (120  miles  long)  from  Kaifeng  to 
Ho-nan.  This  concession  was  obtained  by  the 
Belgians.  The  Paris  correspondent  of  Frankfurter 
Zeitung  gives  the  following  details  concerning  the 
enterprise  : 

The  Compagnie  Generate  de  Chemins  de  Fer  et 
de  Tramways  en  Chine  has  made  an  agreement, 
confirmed  by  the  Chinese  Government,  with  the  Com- 
pagnie Imperiale  des  Chemins  de  Fer  Chinois  for  the 
construction  of  above  railway  line,  starting  from  Yung- 
tse,  where  the  Luhan  line  crosses  the  Yellow  River, 
and  to  be  conducted  from  that  point  eastward  to 
Kaifeng,  and  to  Ho-nan  westward.  The  cost  of  the 
line  is  estimated  at  25,000,000  francs,  to  be  covered  by  a 
5  per  cent.  Chinese  gold  loan.  The  terms  of  the  contract 
are  similar  to  those  for  the  Pekin-Hankow  line.  The 
issue  of  the  loan  has  to  be  made  within  nine  months 
from  the  signing  of  the  contract,  November  12,  1903,  and 
is  to  take  place  in  Paris  and  Brussels  at  92^  per  cent. 
(462^  francs  for  the  500  francs  bond)  as  soon  as  the 
position  of  the  markets  admits.  The  syndicate  includes 
the  Banque  de  Paris  and  Pays  Bas,  the  Soci^t^  Pari- 
sienne  Electrique,  the  firm  of  Empain  at  Brussels  and 
Benard  &  Savislowsky  in  Paris. 


190  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

This  line  was  first  applied  for  by  the  Pekin 
Syndicate  in  1899,  but  they  were  not  successful 
in  obtaining  it. 

Last  calling  for  notice  amongst  the  foreign 
concessions  are  those  obtained  by  Germany.  Four 
separate  projects  stand  to  the  account  of  the  Kaiser's 
subjects.  The  first  is  a  line  proceeding  from  the 
Shantung  border  to  Tientsin.  Secondly,  we  have  a 
scheme  for  connecting  Kiao  Chau  with  Tsinan  by 
a  line  250  miles  long.  A  third  line  continues  the 
railway  system  from  the  last-named  place  to 
Chengting  on  the  Luhan  Railway,  175  miles 
away.  Finally,  there  is  a  project  for  a  line  150 
miles  long  from  Yen  Chau  to  Kaifeng,  south  of 
the  Yellow  River  on  the  Luhan  Railway.  The  un- 
doubted object  of  the  three  last-named  railways 
is  to  draw  all  traffic  from  Tientsin,  Chengting 
Junction  and  Kaifeng — that  is,  from  the  north, 
west,  and  south-west  to  the  German  port  of  Kiao 
Chau.  The  Tsinan  line  is  well  in  hand,  about 
180  miles  being  completed  from  Kiao  Chau,  and 
the  balance,  70  miles,  under  construction  ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  much  progress  has  been  made 
with  the  other  projects. 

A  convenient  summary  of  the  position  will  be 
found  in  the  following  tables,  showing  the  con- 
cessions obtained  and  those  contemplated  : 


List  of  Concessions 


191 


CONCESSIONS   OBTAINED. 


NAME   OF    RAILWAY. 


LENGTH 
MILES. 


Imperial  railways  of  North  ( 
China j 

Pekin-Hankow  Railway  ...        700 
Chengting-Tai-Yuan) 


Railway 
Hankow-Canton  Railway 


Canton-Kowloon  Railway 
Shanghai-Nanking  Railway 
Suchau  to  Hang  Chau  and  ) 

Ningpo  Railway         ...  j 
Pukou-Sinyang  Railway  ... 
Pukou  to  southern  border ) 

of  Shantung   ...         ...  ) 

Taokou     to     Tsechau     in ) 

Shansi  ...         ...  j 

Shantung  border  to  Tien-  ) 

tsin       3 

Kiao  Chau  to  Tsinan 
Tsinan  to  Chengting 
Yen  Chau  to  Kaifeng 
Tongking  and  Yunnan 
Kaifeng  to  Ho-nan 

Total  length   ... 


9i{ 


100 
210 

200 

200 

125 

120 

270 

250 

175 
150 
800 
120 

S.051 


REMARKS. 


560         4'  8J" 


{British  capital 
largely     in- 
terested 
Belgian     and 
French 


„  (?)      Russian 


Americans,  Bel- 
gians, and 
Russians  in- 
terested 

British 

British 

British 
British 
British 

British 

German 

German 

German 

German 

French 

Belgian 


CONCESSIONS  CONTEMPLATED. 


NAME   or  RAILWAY. 


Sinyang  to  Chentu  in  Sze-chuan 

Chungking  to  Shunking 

Tai  Yuan  to  Sian 

Yunnan  to  Sze-chuan       

I-chang  to  Chungking      

Kaifeng    to    Su    on    Shantung 
border  railway  from^Pukou 


LENGTH 
MILES. 

GAUGE. 

RBMARKa. 

680 

4'  8i" 

British 

IOC 

British 

400 

Russian 

350 

French 

350 

French 

200 

British 

Total 


2,080 


192 


Far  Eastern  Impressions 


These  additional  tables  will  also  be  found  useful 
and  interesting  : 


CONCESSIONS    OBTAINED. 

NATIONALITIES. 

Chinese     ...         ...         ...         

Belgian  and  French 

Russian  (exclusive  of  the  Manchurian  lines) ... 

American 

British       

German     ... 

French      

Belgian     

Total     

CONCESSIONS    CONTEMPLATED. 

NATIONALITIES. 

British       

Russian 

French      


LENGTH 
MILES. 

.    560 

•    153 
.   918 

•  955 

.  845 

.  800 

.  120 

.  5.051 


LENGTH 
MILES. 


980 


Total 2,080 

It  is  perfectly  clear  from  these  tables  that  we  do 
not  occupy  the  position  in  the  field  of  Chinese 
railway  development  which  is  ours  by  virtue  of  our 
enormous  trade  interests  in  the  country  and  our 
(until  recent  years)  predominating  political  influence. 
Less  than  a  fifth  of  the  concessions  granted  are  in 
respect  of  British  lines.  We  have  only  a  fourth 
greater  mileage  than  Belgium,  and  but  an  eighth  in 
excess  of  Germany.  If  we  look  at  accomplished 
work  we  are  even  less  advantageously  placed,  for 
while  little  has  been  done  by  British  capitalists  out- 
side   the  Pekin    Syndicate's  area,  the  Belgians,  the 


General  Position  of  Concessions       193 

French,  and  the  Germans  are  all  well  under  weigh 
with  most  important  schemes.  Priority  of  construc- 
tion means  a  good  deal  in  a  country  like  China, 
which  is  perfectly  virgin  soil  for  railway  enterprise, 
and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  some  of  the  leeway  lost 
can  now  never  be  entirely  recovered.  The  utmost 
that  can  be  hoped  for  is  that  we  shall  secure  for 
ourselves  a  commanding  position  in  those  portions 
of  the  country  which  are  embraced  in  our  sphere  of 
influence,  and  at  the  same  time  establish  lucrative 
connections  with  lines  in  other  regions  by  the  exer- 
cise of  a  judicious  diplomacy.  The  more  detailed 
aspects  of  this  question  I  must  leave  for  discussion 
in  a  separate  chapter. 


13 


CHAPTER    XIII 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  FOREIGN  RAILWAY  ENTERPRISE — RUSSIAN 
AND  FRENCH  PROJECTS — GERMAN  SCHEMES — AMERICAN 
INTEREST  IN  RAILWAY  DEVELOPMENT — BRITISH  CON- 
CESSIONS— FUTURE  LINKING  UP  OF  THE  INDIAN  RAILWAYS 
WITH   THE   BRITISH   CHINESE   LINES. 

IF  you  take  a  map  of  China  with  the  railway- 
concessions  clearly  marked  on  it,  you  have  a 
perfect  index  of  international  ambitions.  It  says 
more  plainly  than  reams  of  official  despatches  what 
views  particular  countries  take  of  the  future  of  the 
Chinese  Empire.  Tracing  these  various  lines  from 
beginning  to  finish,  and  joining  them  up  with  enter- 
prises, it  may  be  many  hundreds  of  miles  away,  you 
can  with  almost  mathematical  certainty  determine 
what  are  the  hidden  motives  which  have  directed 
their  promotion. 

Let  us  glance  first  at  the  schemes  of  Russia  and 
France.  It  would  certainly  appear  from  the  map  that 
the  two  countries  are  working  in  unison.  The  great 
Luhan  Railway  which  connects  Pekin  with  Hankow, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a 
French  line.     It  links   up  with    the  great   Russian 

railway  coming  from  the  north  to  Pekin,  and  may 

194 


Russo^French  Enterprise  195 

be  regarded  as  an  extension  of  it.  This,  however, 
is  only  a  small  part  of  the  far-reaching  designs  which 
are  evidently  in  contemplation.  Other  lines  are 
being  prosecuted  by  the  two  Powers  in  opposite  ends 
of  the  Empire — lines  which  will  ultimately  unite, 
and  which,  when  united,  will  give  Russo-French 
communication  between  one  extreme  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  and  the  other,  passing  through  on  the  way 
the  very  heart  of  our  own  sphere  of  influence.  The 
French  enterprises  actually  sanctioned  (apart  from 
the  Luhan  Railway)  are  limited  to  the  provinces  of 
Kuangtung,  Tongking,  and  Yunnan,  which  are  well 
within  the  legitimate  sphere  of  the  Republic.  But  the 
contemplated  extension  to  Siu  Fu  in  Sze-chuan  will 
carry  the  French  influence  far  beyond  into  a  region 
which  we  are  supposed  to  dominate  politically. 
The  trade  advantages  of  such  an  extension  to 
France  would  be  without  doubt  enormous.  But  it 
is  from  the  political  standpoint  that  the  move 
appears  most  significant.  When  the  line  reaches 
Siu  Fu,  it  will  be  well  on  the  road  to  the 
objective  of  the  railways  under  Russian  influence 
advancing  from  the  north-east.  The  projected 
Russian  line  through  Mongolia  will  eventually  give 
direct  access  to  Pekin  from  the  Siberian  Railway 
at'Khailar.  From  Pekin  the  Luhan  Railway  already 
carries  the  French  colours  to  Chengting.  From 
that  point  to  Tai  Yuan  another  stride  is  made  by 


196  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

the  sanctioned  Russian  line.  This  is  only  the 
preliminary  to  a  further  and  yet  bolder  flight 
towards  the  goal,  for  in  the  list  of  contemplated 
concessions  given  in  the  previous  chapter  we  have 
a  project  for  a  line  from  Tai  Yuan  to  Sian,  the 
ancient  capital  of  China.  The  line  will  pass  close 
to  Tung  Kwan,  a  place  of  great  strategical  im- 
portance, situated  near  to  the  almost  right-angled 
bend  made  by  the  Yellow  River,  where  it  enters 
the  province  of  Ho-nan.  Tung  Kwan  is  on  the 
road  along  which  all  the  traffic  between  the  plains 
of  China  and  Central  Asia  passes,  and  is  known 
as  the  gate  of  Central  Asia.  It  has  been  described 
by  Baron  Richthofen  and  Colonel  Mark  Bell,  V.C., 
R.E.,  and  occupies  a  commanding  position,  as 
well  from  a  strategical  as  from  a  commercial 
point  of  view.  Its  importance  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. Here  for  the  time  being  Russian 
enterprise  stops — but,  we  may  safely  assume,  only 
for  the  time.  Between  Sian — the  most  advanced 
post,  as  we  may  appropriately  term  it,  of  Russian 
railway  influence — and  Siu  Fu,  the  point  to  which 
French  schemes  are  advanced,  there  is  not  a  very 
wide  breach.  The  two  points,  in  fact,  might  be 
connected  by  a  line  of  probably  less  than  five 
hundred  miles  in  length.  Can  we  for  a  moment 
suppose  that  the  intention  is  not  to  supply  this 
link  eventually  .''     Looking  at  the  enormous  energy 


German  Railway  Projects  197 

and  pertinacity  with  which  the  projects  of  both 
Powers  have  been  prosecuted,  it  would  be  folly 
to  imagine  otherwise.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  a  Russo-French  line  traversing  the  Chinese 
Empire  from  end  to  end  is  one  of  the  certainties 
of  the  near  future. 

When  we  proceed  to  examine  the  German 
projects  we  find  them  marked  by  the  same  definite 
political  aims.  Germany,  unlike  France  and  Russia, 
has  no  far-reaching  scheme  of  domination  to  work 
out.  But  she  has,  nevertheless,  a  programme  of 
her  own  of  no  insignificant  kind.  Her  ambition  is 
to  draw  all  the  trade  of  Northern  China  to  Kiao 
Chau,  the  port  in  Shantung  upon  which  she  has 
expended  so  much.  Keeping  this  object  steadily 
in  view,  she  has  carefully  prepared  a  scheme  of 
railway  construction  which  will  tap  at  several 
important  points  in  the  interior  the  stream  of 
commerce  and  divert  it  by  the  natural  law  of  trade 
gravitation  to  the  seat  of  her  power  in  the  Far 
East,  which  she  hopes  may  some  day  compare  with 
even  Hong  Kong  in  the  volume  and  importance 
of  its  trade.  Three  widely  separated  but  important 
centres  outside  Shantung  are  reached  by  her  lines. 
One  railway  connects  the  province  with  Tientsin  ; 
the  second  reaches  out  to  Chengting,  from 
whence  it  may  hope  to  draw  to  Kiao  Chau  the 
resources    of   the    Northern    Shansi    coal-fields    by 


198  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

means  of  the  Russian  railway  to  Tai  Yuan  ;  and  the 
third  line  gives  access  to  the  trade  of  the  middle 
basin  of  the  Yellow  River  at  Kaifeng.  All  three 
projects  are  well  planned  ;  but  experience  can  only- 
show  whether  the  hopes  built  upon  them  are 
realisable.  The  impression  of  commercial  men  on 
the  spot  is  that  the  railways  will  never  be  able  to 
do  more  than  attract  a  moiety  of  the  internal  trade 
the  flow  of  which  is  now  either  north  to  Tientsin 
or  south  to  Shanghai.  What  German  energy  and 
determination  can  do,  however,  we  may  be  sure 
will  be  accomplished,  for  of  all  the  Kaiser's  oversea 
possessions  this  is  the  one  by  which  greatest  store 
is  set  in  Berlin. 

The  important  Hankow-Canton  Railway — the 
longest  line  under  a  single  concession  yet  pro- 
jected in  China — is  classed  as  American,  but  its 
association  with  the  United  States  is  purely  financial, 
and  even  at  that  it  is  not  exclusive,  for,  as  we  have 
shown  in  the  previous  chapter,  both  the  Russians 
and  the  Belgians  have  a  substantial  interest  in  the 
undertaking.  It  is,  therefore,  by  no  means  beyond 
the  bounds  of  possibility  that  somej&  day  the 
American  interest  will  be  transferred  and  the  project 
merged  in  the  great  Belgo-French  Luhan  Railway. 
Thus  we  have  in  prospect  the  completion  of  two 
great  trunk  lines  through  China  under  Russo- 
French  domination,  one  running  west  through  the 


British  Railway  Projects  199 

extreme  length  of  Northern  China  and  joining  with 
the  French  lines  coming  up  from  Tongking  and 
Yunnan,  and  the  other  proceeding  due  south  from 
Pekin  to  Canton.  This  is  a  development  which 
we  cannot  but  anticipate  with  serious  misgiving. 
Apart  from  the  political  leverage  which  this 
enormous  railway  interest  will  give  to  the  detriment 
of  our  influence,  the  character  of  the  commercial 
policy  of  both  Russia  and  France  makes  it  almost 
certain  that  the  lines  will  be  worked  to  our  dis- 
advantage. Our  one  consolation  is  that  the  plans 
have  not  been  by  a  very  long  way  consummated. 
Unless  the  war  leaves  Russia  much  stronger 
financially  than  it  appears  at  all  likely  to  do,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  that  she  will  be  in  a  position  to 
seriously  prosecute  the  designs  to  completion.  In 
the  meantime  British  enterprise  will  probably  have 
appeared  seriously  to  dispute  the  most  important 
part  of  the  field  with  the  Russo-French  combination. 
On  a  survey  of  British  enterprise,  actual  and 
prospective,  we  discover  a  boldness  of  conception 
worthy  of  the  best  traditions  of  our  country's  com- 
mercial policy.  If  projected  schemes  are  carried 
out,  we  shall  have  under  our  control  a  great  line 
of  railway  commencing  at  Shanghai  and  running 
through  the  most  fertile  and  populous  part  of  the 
Yangtse  Valley  for  nearly  a  thousand  ,  miles  to 
Chen    Tu  in  Sze-chuan.     Such  a  line   would   give 


200  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

a  reality  to  our  sphere  of  influence,  and  without 
doubt  be  enormously  beneficial  to  our  trade,  which 
would  find  a  ready  and  cheap  means  of  access 
to  some  of  the  best  markets  in  China.  But  its 
most  important  recommendation  is  that  it  would 
go  a  long  step  towards  making  that  bond  of 
communication  between  our  Indian  Empire  and 
China  which  has  so  long  been  the  dream  of  the 
more  enterprising  of  our  Indian  statesmen.  From 
Chen  Tu  to  Bhamo,  our  frontier  post  in  Burmah, 
where  the  railway  system  now  ends,  is  not  more 
than  five  hundred  miles  ;  and  though  the  country  is 
throughout  mountainous  and  the  population  is  so 
sparse  that  no  paying  local  traffic  could  be  looked 
for,  the  political  advantages  of  the  line  would 
be  so  enormous  that  the  Government  would  be 
thoroughly  justified  in  taking  up  the  line  on  their 
own  account.  The  cost  would  certainly  be  great, 
but  probably  the  scheme  would  not  be  nearly  so  ex- 
pensive as  the  Uganda  line,  which  can  never  bring 
a  tithe  of  the  benefits  which  this  Indo-Chinese 
railway  would  confer.  I  can  only  join  in  the  hope 
expressed  by  all  leading  Anglo-Chinese  who  have 
studied  the  question,  that  with  the  further  develop- 
ment of  railway  enterprise  in  China  it  will  be 
realised  by  the  Government  that  this  linking  up  of 
India  and  China  by  means  of  a  railway  is  absolutely 
essential  in  the  highest  interests  of  the  nation. 


Suggested  British  and  French  Co-operation     201 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  great  all-British 
route  from  Shanghai  to  Sze-chuan  to  which  we 
have  referred  is  still  to  a  very  large  extent  on  paper. 
Powerful  interests — French  and  Russian — are  con- 
tending for  the  right  to  advance  to  the  same  goal 
from  different  points,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  they 
will  not  readily  relinquish  the  field  to  us.  In  this 
matter,  however,  the  Government  are  backing  the 
application  with  a  wholeheartedness  which  is  an 
augury  of  ultimate  success.  Happily  there  is  no 
question  here  of  drawing  a  distinction  between 
political  and  commercial  claims  to  diplomatic 
assistance.  It  is  clearly  recognised  that  if  our 
interests,  political  and  commercial,  are  not  to  be 
seriously  compromised,  we  must  determinedly  press 
our  title  to  construct  this  line,  which  lies  entirely 
within  our  sphere  of  influence. 

The  suggestion  has  been  thrown  out  that  a 
settlement  of  the  vexed  question  of  the  line  to 
Sze-chuan  may  be  reached  by  an  arrangement 
between  the  British  and  the  French  interests,  under 
which  each  would  obtain  definite  advantages  either 
in  this  sphere  or  elsewhere.  Possibly  some  such 
settlement  may  be  arrived  at,  more  especially  as 
there  is  now  the  best  of  feeling  between  the  two 
countries,  and  old  rivalries  have  been  as  a  con- 
sequence largely  mitigated.  Indeed,  there  are  some 
influential  men  interested  in  British  trade  in  China 


202  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

who  go  so  far  as  to  advocate  that  we  should  enter 
into  a  general  agreement  with  France  for  the 
exploitation  of  China  by  railways  on  a  joint  system. 
I  do  not  know  how  far  such  a  concordat  would 
be  feasible  :  I  fear  that  for  some  time  to  come 
at  all  events  it  will  be  impracticable,  having  regard 
to  the  extent  to  which  France  is  involved  in  Russian 
schemes.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that 
both  France  and  ourselves  have  much  to  gain  and 
little  to  lose  by  an  amicable  understanding  on  all 
Chinese  railway  matters.  France  naturally  wants 
to  secure  for  her  Indo-Chinese  possessions  a  share 
of  the  prosperity  which  may  be  expected  to  follow 
in  the  train  of  the  construction  of  trunk  railways  in 
China,  and  we  quite  as  naturally  desire  to  obtain 
the  unobstructed  path  as  well  as  the  open  door 
for  our  goods.  The  two  things  are  not  at  aU 
incompatible.  Anyway,  there  is  ample  room  and 
to  spare  for  both  countries  in  this  particular  field 
of  action,  and  it  would  be  a  thousand  pities  if 
mutual  jealousies  were  permitted  to  stand  in  the 
way  of  the  execution  of  schemes  from  which  both 
might  expect  to  derive  substantial  advantage. 

A  circumstance  which  makes  the  prospects  of 
the  future  brighter  for  British  enterprise  is  the 
conclusion  of  an  arrangement  between  the  Pekin 
Syndicate  and  the  British  and  Chinese  Corporation, 
under  which    the    two    great    bodies    of  capitalists 


Outlook  for  British  Enterprise         203 

agree  to  treat  as  matters  of  joint  concern  all  railway 
enterprises  to  be  carried  through  north  of  the 
Yangtsc  River.  This  consolidation  of  British 
interests  will,  it  may  be  safely  assumed,  facilitate 
the  securing  of  concessions,  and  also  smooth  the 
way  for  the  capitalising  of  the  ventures  when  the 
time  comes  for  active  work.  All  things  considered, 
the  outlook  is  now  brighter  than  it  has  ever  been 
for  British  interests  in  this  most  important  matter 
of  Chinese  development.  It  only  remains  for  us 
to  continue  steadfastly  in  the  path  we  have  marked 
out  to  make  our  commercial  position  in  the  heart 
of  China  secure  against  all  rivals. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

THE  FAR  EASTERN  SICK  MAN — STRIKING  VIEWS  OF  AN  ANGLO- 
CHINESE  OFFICIAL  A  HALF  CENTURY  AGO  —  PROPOSED 
TRIPLE     ALLIANCE     OF      GREAT      BRITAIN,      FRANCE,      AND 

AMERICA ANGLO-CHINESE      OPINIONS      TO-DAY — DANGERS 

OF  DISRUPTION,  COMMERCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  —  POSSI- 
BILITIES OF  REFORM — PROPOSED  EXTENSION  OF  THE 
DUTIES   OF   THE   CHINESE   MARITIME  CUSTOMS 

AS  I  entered  China  so  1  left  it,  with  the  gloomy 
prophecies  of  the  impending  ruin  of  the 
empire  ringing  in  my  ears.  Men  were  oppressed 
with  the  sense  of  the  terrible  dangers  with  which 
the  vast  country  was  environed,  and  were  nervously 
apprehensive  lest  our  Government  should  fail  to 
realise  as  vividly  as  they  did  the  necessity  of  bold, 
vigorous  action  to  avert  the  apparently  rapidly 
approaching  catastrophe.  What  has  happened  since 
then  has  only  increased  the  force  and  impressive- 
ness  of  the  warning  words  which  were  addressed 
to  me  from  almost  every  quarter  during  my  tour 
in  the  Far  East.     Indeed,  if  anything,  the  position 

has   changed    for    the    worse.      The    Far    Eastern 

204 


ON    THE   GREAT   WALL  OF  CHINA    NEAR   SHAN-HAI-KWAN    (SEE   PAGE    164). 

[7b  face  p.  204. 


A  VIEW  ON  THE  GREAT  WALL. 


THE  GREAT  WALL  NEAR  SHAN-HAI-KWAN. 
(The  view  shows  the  wall  from  inside.) 


\To  face  p.  205. 


The  Far  Eastern  Problem  205 

Sick  Man  has  become  more  indisposed  ;  his  enemies 
and  ill-wishers  have  grown  bolder  and  more 
determined  in  their  attacks  on  his  heritage,  serenely 
confident  that  in  his  weakness  he  would  not  be 
able  to  resist  the  depredation.  A  momentary  lull 
in  the  insidious  process  of  sapping  the  vitals  of  the 
country  has  been  caused  by  the  Russo-Japanese  War ; 
but  the  problem  of  the  future  remains  to  be  revived 
probably  in  a  more  acute  form  than  ever  as  soon 
as  the  hostilities  terminate.  The  question  is,  What 
solution  have  we  for  it  ?  This  is  not  a  case  in 
which  we  can  go  on  with  a  hand-to-mouth  policy, 
waiting  on  events,  trusting  to  our  proverbial  good 
luck  to  pull  us  through  in  the  long  run.  We 
must  know  our  mind  and,  knowing  it,  we  must  be 
prepared  to  back  it  with  the  whole  forces,  moral 
and  material,  which  we  have  at  our  command. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  and  one,  I  think, 
which  has  not  received  the  attention  it  deserves, 
that  the  present  critical  position  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  was  anticipated  in  almost  every  detail 
nearly  a  half  century  ago  by  a  well-known  British 
official  in  China  and  not  only  that,  but  definite 
proposals  were  put  forward  by  him  for  overcoming 
the  dangers  which  he  shrewdly  foresaw  would 
follow  surely  in  the  train  of  the  unchecked  aggres- 
sion of  Russia.  The  prescient  official  to  whom  I 
refer  was  Mr.  T.  T.  Meadows,  who,  as  British  Consul, 


2o6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

was  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  opening  the  port 
of  Newchwang  to  British  and  foreign  trade.  This 
gentleman,  in  1856,  when  the  Siberian  Railway 
did  not  exist  even  in  the  region  of  political  dream- 
land and  at  a  time  when  Russian  designs  appeared 
to  be  mainly  centred  in  regions  removed  by  the 
expanse  of  a  continent  from  their  present  objective, 
published  an  essay  on  The  Best  Tolicy  of  Western 
States,  which  might  almost  have  been  penned  to- 
day in  the  light  of  actual  events.  Mr.  Meadows' 
view  briefly  was,  that  the  march  of  Russia  in  Asia 
must  inevitably  bring  her  sooner  or  later,  if  per- 
mitted to  continue  unchecked,  to  the  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili  and  the  Yellow  Sea  and  that  from 
that  point  she  would  be  able  to  dominate  and  finally 
absorb  China.  He  believed  that  the  danger  could 
only  be  averted  by  a  combination  of  Powers  and 
he  suggested  as  the  most  effective  coalition  the 
grouping  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  America. 
The  reasons  which  he  gave  in  support  of  his 
theories  are  so  interesting  and  still  have  so  much 
cogency  that  I  make  no  apology  for  reproducing 
them. 

Russia  is  the  only  Power  that  can  seriously  speculate 
on  acquiring  China  for  herself  None  of  the  other  three 
can  hope  to  acquire  China  if  they  wished  it  ;  but  they 
can,  by  isolated  and  inevitably  jarring  operations  in 
matters  of  commerce  and  religions,  raise  quarrels 
among  themselves,  and  at  the   same   time   check  and 


Dangers  of  Russian  Aggression        207 

thwart  the  spontaneous  political  action  of  the  Chinese 
in  that  work  of  self-government  which  is  indispensable 
to  national  health  and  strength  and  to  the  spontaneous 
wholesome  adoption  of  military  science.  The  Chinese 
will  then  not  simply  remain  externally  as  defenceless 
as  they  now  are,  but  will  really  become,  internally,  what 
many  now  imagine  them  to  be,  i.e.  unenergetic,  effete, 
hopeless,  and  helpless.  They  would  then  be  unable  to 
resist  those  future  aggressions  which  the  severe  check 
she  has  incurred  in  her  present  contest  [Crimean  War] 
will  not  prevent  Russia  from  attempting  so  soon  as 
her  commercial  and  military  communications  by  tele- 
graph line,  by  road,  by  river,  and  by  railway  are 
rendered  sufficiently  easy  throughout  the  productive 
regions  of  Southern  Siberia  up  to  her  forts  on  the 
Amoor,  and  for  which  future  aggressions  she  is  doubt- 
less already  preparing  by  the  less  open  methods  of 
attack  known  to  be  habitual  to  her  foreign  policy. 
When  writing  some  months  back  in  opposition  to  one 
of  the  advocates  of  interference  with  Chinese  affairs, 
who,  among  other  things,  ridiculed  our  "  guarding 
against  imaginary  Russian  dangers  in  China,"  I  stated  : 
"  The  greatest,  though  not  nearest,  danger  of  a  weak 
China  lies  precisely  in  those  territorial  aggressions  of 
Russia,  which  she  began  to  attempt  two  centuries  ago, 
one  of  which  she  has  successfully  carried  out  at  the 
Amoor  within  the  last  three  years,  and  which,  if  allowed 
to  go  on,  will  speedily  give  her  a  large  and  populous 
territory,  faced  with  Sweaborgs  and  Sebastopols,  on  the 
seaboard  of  Eastern  Asia.  .  .  .  To  support  the  Sick  Man 
in  the  near  East  is  an  arduous  and  costly  affair;  let 
England,  France,  and  America,  too,  beware  how  they 
create  a  sick  giant  in  the  Far  East ;  for  they  may  rest 
assured  that  if  "Turkey  is  a  European  necessity," 
China  is  a  world  necessity. 


2o8  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

The  compact  which  Mr.  Meadows  proposed 
should  be  entered  upon  by  his  Far  Eastern  Triple 
A-lliance  is  presented  in  vivid  outline  in  his  composi- 
tion.    Here  are  the  provisions  : 

1.  An  attack  of  Russia  on  China  to  place  in  abeyance 
any  serious  discussions  that  might  then  be  carried  on 
among  the  three  Powers  themselves,  the  matters  in 
discussion  to  remain  as  they  then  happen  to  be  ;  and 
such  an  attack  to  have  the  effect  of  an  armistice,  leading 
to  peace  by  arbitration,  in  the  case  of  the  existence  of 
war  among  them. 

2.  An  attack  of  Russia  on  China  to  constitute  a 
declaration  of  war  against  the  three  maritime  Powers ; 
the  active  operations  of  the  war  to  begin  in  a  pre- 
arranged manner  and  to  be  prosecuted  by  them  in  the 
east  and  west,  until  Russia  agreed  to  pay  all  the  costs. 

3.  The  action  of  the  three  Powers  in  their  intercourse 
with  China  to  be  in  all  respects  regulated  by  agreement 
among  themselves  ;  force  not  to  be  used  against  China 
by  the  subjects  or  agents  of  any  single  one  of  the  three 
Powers,  except  in  individual  or  local  cases  of  mere 
self-defence  ;  and  in  the  event  of  China  refusing  redress, 
in  a  case  which  the  three  Powers  considered  a  grievance 
to  any  one  of  them,  then  the  redress  to  be  obtained 
by  hostile  operations  of  the  other  two,  the  aggrieved 
Power  remaining  passive,  and  the  costs  being  required 
from  the  Chinese. 

4.  No  concessions  in  addition  to  those  made  by  treaty 
to  be  demanded  from  China,  except  after  an  agreement 
among  the  three  Powers  and  always  in  the  shape  of 
a  joint  requisition ;  and  no  concession  to  be  demanded 
until  the  fullest  inquiry  and  consideration  had  shown 
that  it  was  not  likely  to  impair  the  strength  for  good 


Suggested  Triple  Alliance  209 

of  the  Chinese  Government,  and  also  that  the  latter 
possessed  the  virtual  as  well  as  the  nominal  power  of 
granting  it. 

5.  The  three  Powers  themselves  to  make  no  en- 
croachment on  the  present  territories  of  the  Chinese 
Empire. 

6.  The  three  Powers  neither  to  interfere  themselves 
nor  to  allow  any  other  Power,  large  or  small,  to  interfere 
— not  even  in  character  of  mediators — with  the  disputes 
or  civil  wars  of  the  present  Chinese  Empire,  whether 
among  the  Chinese  themselves  or  among  them  and 
the  other  peoples  which  are  contained  within  the  limits 
of  the  empire. 

7.  Special  care  to  be  taken  that  the  rulers  and  people 
of  the  Chinese  Empire,  wherever  foreigners  come  into 
contact  with  them,  be  constantly  furnished  with  transla- 
tions of  the  present  compact  and  of  the  detailed  rules 
based  upon  it ;  together  with  a  carefully  prepared  and 
full  exposition  of  its  subject  and  meaning,  the  exposi- 
tion to  be  accompanied  by  maps  and  to  be  specially 
adapted  to  the  geographical  and  historical  knowledge 
of  those  whom  it  is  meant  to  enlighten. 

Mr.  Meadows  was  far  from  being  a  Russophobe. 
He  recognised  that  Russia's  geographical  position 
impelled  her  irresistibly  seawards.  But  his  appre- 
ciation of  this  fact  did  not  make  him  see  the  less 
clearly  that  it  is  "  our  duty  to  oppose  Russia  with 
all  our  intelligence,  our  wealth,  and  our  military 
force."  The  cause  of  civilisation,  he  thought,  alone 
would  justify  it,  "  for  the  Chinese  are  freer  and 
happier  even  under  their  Manchu  Government  than 
they  would  eventually  find   themselves   under  that 

14 


2IO  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

of  Russia."  But  the  real  ground  for  existence  is 
the  political  one.  The  three  Powers  he  had  named 
would,  if  they  were  wise,  "  wage,  severally  or  collec- 
tively, a  war  of  exhaustion  with  Russia  rather  than 
allow  her  to  conquer  China  ;  for  when  she  has  done 
that  she  will  be  truly  Mistress  of  the  World." 

Such  a  compact  as  that  suggested,  Mr.  Meadows 
insisted,  would  result  in  substantial  benefits.  It 
would  free  China  from  the  fear  of  encroachments, 
and  one  great  cause  of  her  exclusiveness  would  be 
effectually  removed.  It  would  put  an  end  to  the 
undue  squeezing  of  the  Chinese  Government  by 
vain  and  ambitious  agents,  and  it  would  prevent 
the  struggle  for  concessions  which  is  so  detrimental 
to  Chinese  interests  and  so  demoralising  to  the 
Powers  which  take  part  in  it.  Indirectly  it  would 
promote  good  Government  in  China  itself  by  the 
moral  force  it  would  exercise  upon  the  ruling 
authorities.  Finally,  the  writer  maintained,  an 
arrangement  of  the  character  he  sketched,  '*  if  fairly 
concluded  by  the  three  maritime  Powers,  would 
practically  put  an  end  in  Eastern  Asia  to  the  in- 
herited policy  of  the  Czars  and  might  have  the 
effect  of  finally  convincing  Russia  that  that  policy 
must  once  for  all  be  given  up."  She  could,  in  any 
case,  Mr.  Meadows  added,  be  invited  to  join  the 
union  for  the  preservation  of  China,  with  equal 
rights  and  privileges  to  all  parties. 


Anglo'Chinese  Views  211 

This,  I  think,  it  will  be  admitted,  is  a  scheme 
of  singular  interest.  The  writer  was  no  visionary 
or  political  "crank,"  but  a  level-headed  official,  with 
a  profound  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  and  a  remark- 
able insight  into  the  problems  underlying  the 
geographical  distribution  of  power  on  the  Asiatic 
continent.  His  opinions  of  the  tendencies  of 
Russian  aggression  have  been  thoroughly  justified  by 
events.  This  circumstance  lends  the  greater  weight 
to  his  views  as  to  the  remedies  to  be  applied  to  meet 
the  situation  created  by  the  advance  of  the  northern 
Power.  His  scheme,  I  think,  it  will  be  generally 
admitted  is  a  thoroughly  practicable  one  if  for 
France  in  the  Far  Eastern  Triple  Alliance  we  sub- 
stitute Japan,  and  if  we  may  assume — a  large 
assumption,  I  admit — that  the  United  States  can  be 
induced  to  depart  from  her  traditional  policy  of 
diplomatic  independence  so  far  as  to  enter  as  a 
partner  a  coalition  such  as  Mr.  Meadows  proposes. 
In  any  circumstances  the  suggestions  put  forward 
supply  a  good  basis  for  building  up  a  Far  Eastern 
policy  which  is  sound  and  statesmanlike. 

Passing  from  this  suggestive  essay  of  Mr. 
Meadows  to  the  opinions  held  by  the  more  expert 
of  the  Anglo-Chinese  officials  of  to-day,  I  am 
struck  with  the  remarkable  similarity  of  the  senti- 
ments now  expressed  with  those  outlined  in  his 
paper.     At  the  present  time,  as  a  half  century  ago, 


212  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

the  predominant  note  is  the  supreme  importance 
of  taking  measures  to  uphold  the  integrity  of  the 
Chinese  Empire.  Some  account  of  these  Anglo- 
Chinese  views  will,  I  venture  to  think,  be  welcomed, 
and  I  have  therefore  cast  into  a  summarised  form 
the  various  expressions  of  opinion  with  which  I 
have  been  favoured  from  well-informed  quarters. 

At   the   outset  of  my  inquiry  into  the  trend   of 
Anglo-Chinese  sentiment  I  was  impressed  with  the 
fact  that  the  enormous  magnitude  of  the  problem 
interposes    a    serious    difficulty    in    the    way   of    a 
comprehensive  view  of  it.     People  on  the  spot  were 
greatly  influenced  by  this  consideration,  and  to  that 
circumstance    may    be   attributed    the    despondency 
which,  as  I  have  already  noted,  tinges  opinions  almost 
everywhere  in  China.     On  one  point  there  is  pretty 
general  agreement,  and  that  is  as  to  the  improved 
condition  of  the   Chinese  administration.       This  is 
not  seen  at  Pekin,  but  it  is  visible  enough  at  the 
provincial  capitals  where  Western  ideas  are  already 
at  work,  producing  changes   for  the  better  in  the 
system  of  Government.     It  is  thought  that  if  only 
China    can    have   fifteen  or    twenty  years'    freedom 
from   outside  interference,    she  will  evolve    of  her 
own  volition  a  Government  suited  to  the  times  and 
to    the   habits   and  customs  of  her  people.       Un- 
fortunately the  disruptive   factors  of  foreign   origin 
more    than    keep   pace    with    the    advance   of    the 


Possible  Break-up  of  China  213 

reforming  spirit  and,  unless  they  are  checked,  the 
downfall  of  China  is  inevitable.  It  is  not  annexa- 
tions of  territory  that  are  the  chief  danger  :  these 
touch  only  the  fringe,  and,  though  weakening,  are 
not  vitally  injurious.  What  most  makes  for  disrup- 
tion is  the  imposition  upon  China  of  agreements  which 
ignore  her  sovereign  rights.  A  conspicuous  example 
in  point  is  the  Shantung  arrangement  obtained 
by  Germany.  In  the  opinion  of  many  authorities 
this  concession  to  Teutonic  ambition  was  more 
damaging  to  China  than  even  the  Russian  acquisi- 
tions in  Manchuria,  for  it  strikes  at  the  very  heart 
of  China,  and,  if  allowed  full  vent,  may  split  the 
-empire  in  twain. 

That  China  is  in  an  exceedingly  bad  way  is  a 
proposition  which  the  Anglo-Chinese  consider  to  be 
beyond  controversy.  Equally  they  regard  as  un- 
assailable the  argument  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
commercial  nations  of  the  West  to  put  her  right 
again,  even  at  the  cost  of  war.  It  is  pointed  out 
that  if  China  breaks  up,  those  who  have  a  pre- 
emptive right  to  territory  will  be  Russia,  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Japan.  Is  it  to  be 
supposed,  it  is  asked,  that,  following  a  partition, 
equal  rights  of  trade  will  exist .''  The  reply  can 
only  be  an  emphatic  negative.  Each  of  the  Pro- 
tectionist nations  will  assuredly  institute  in  its  own 
sphere  a  system  of  preferential  tariffs,  which,  though 


214  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

they  may  in  the  long  run  do  them  little  good, 
judging  from  the  experience  of  their  other  foreign 
possessions,  will  successfully  cripple  British  trade 
excepting  in  the  section  which  falls  to  this  country 
under  the  partition  scheme.  Japan  will  so  suffer, 
while  America,  as  a  non-participant  in  the  division, 
will  be  practically  excluded  altogether. 

The  industrial  aspects  of  disruption,  though  grave 
enough,  are  not  those  which  are  the  most  serious. 
We  have  to  consider  also,  in  the  view  of  experts, 
the  effect  which  a  foreign  occupation  would  have  on 
the  military  situation  in  Asia.  Though  the  Chinese 
have  not  shone  in  recent  conflicts,  they  are  deemed 
by  excellent  judges  to  be  amongst  the  best  fighting 
material  in  the  world.  Quick  to  learn,  submissive 
to  discipline,  easily  inspired  by  good  leaders,  they 
will,  under  foreign  officers,  become  formidable  soldiers. 
Such  being  their  qualities  is  it  to  be  supposed  that 
foreign  nations  would  refrain  from  utilising  them 
for  offensive  purposes  .?  Should  we  not  in  process  of 
time  see  China  one  vast  standing  camp,  in  which 
armies  under  rival  Powers  would  be  ready  to  carry 
the  torch  of  war  forward  in  any  direction  which  the 
self-interest  or  ambition  of  particular  Powers  might 
direct  ?  In  fine,  should  we  not  see  reproduced  in 
China  in  a  greatly  aggravated  form  the  conditions 
which  prevailed  in  India  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century  ?     The  Anglo-Chinese  see  but  one  answer 


Evil  Influences  of  Pekin  215 

to  these  questions  and  it  must  be  confessed  that 
there  is  substantial  justification  for  their  view  of  the 
probabilities  of  the  future  of  China  under  foreign 
domination. 

The  despondency  which  pervades  the  ranks  of  the 
Anglo-Chinese  is  shared  to  the  full  by  the  more 
progressive  amongst  the  Chinese  officials  and  is 
likely,  it  is  considered,  if  not  stopped,  to  be  the  very 
cause  of  what  it  fears,  and  perpetuate  the  hopelessness 
of  the  situation.  There  is  no  real  justification  for 
the  feeling,  it  is  believed,  in  the  actual  condition  of 
the  country.  Apart  from  the  political  situation, 
there  is  nothing  that  is  not  susceptible  of  remedy. 
The  cause  of  despondency  amongst  the  Chinese  is 
the  absence  of  any  scheme  emanating  from  Pekin  for 
stopping  the  disintegration  of  the  empire.  Foreign 
views  are  also  greatly  influenced  in  a  pessimistic 
sense  by  seeing  the  future  through  the  refracting 
medium  of  the  capital.  But  in  many  ways  Pekin  is 
the  worst  place  in  which  to  form  a  judgment  about 
China.  It  may  almost  be  said  that  whatever  is  bad 
in  China  centres  there.  It  is  the  fountain-head  of 
corruption,  the  Mecca  of  official  intriguers.  In 
such  an  environment  it  is  almost  inevitable  that  bold, 
unscrupulous  men  should  come  to  the  front  and 
that  they  should  give  a  direction  to  the  policy  of  the 
Government.  But  powerful  as  are  the  evil  influences 
of  Pekin,  they  have  their  limitations.     Such  is  the 


2i6  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

system  of  administration  that  an  enormous  power  is 
reposed  in  the  provincial  Viceroys.  They  are,  in 
fact,  in  many  things  the  real  rulers  of  China.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  tendencies  which  they  show  that  are 
really  important  as  far  as  the  internal  condition  of 
China  is  concerned,  and  happily  they  have  given 
abundant  evidence  of  their  patriotism  and  zeal  for 
reform.  A  few  years  ago  foreign-speaking  officials 
in  a  viceroy's  yamen,  other  than  interpreters,  would 
have  been  very  rare,  but  now  foreign  educated  men 
are  to  be  seen  in  many  responsible  positions,  and  not 
a  few  also  in  subordinate  capacities.  In  the  two 
northern  provinces  two  officers  of  high  rank  have 
been  appointed,  with  substantial  salaries,  with  the 
express  object  of  putting  down  the  custom  of 
**  squeezing."  It  is  significant  that  this  essay  at 
reform  emanated  from  the  throne.  Its  effect  may 
be  judged  by  native  official  opinion,  which  is,  that 
though  some  of  their  number  will  doubtless  continue 
to  squeeze  if  they  can,  the  practice  will  be  hence- 
forward regarded  as  a  dishonourable  one,  and  a  man 
discovered  will  "  lose  his  face." 

In  the  views  of  the  experts  there  are  two  methods 
of  reform  possible  in  China.  One  is  a  gradual 
change,  a  natural  evolution  ;  the  other  a  meta- 
morphosis brought  about  by  a  rebellion  and  the 
ousting  of  the  present  dynasty.  The  latter  method 
is  peculiarly  un suited  to  China,  owing  to  the  vast- 


The  Empress^Dowagcr  217 

ness  of  the  country  and  the  looseness  with  which 
the  constituent  parts  are  bound  together.  It  is 
believed  that  a  good  healthy  revolution  would  take 
decades  to  have  proper  effect. 

The  Empress-Dowager  is  a  sinister  figure  in 
the  modern  life  of  China,  but  there  is  reason  to 
think  that  she  is  in  favour  of  reform.  Her  chief 
fear  is  that  the  desired  change  may  be  precipitated 
by  revolution.  Assuming  her  attitude  to  be  what 
it  is  represented  to  be,  there  ought  to  be  no  difficulty 
in  bringing  about  administrative  changes  which  will 
be  of  the  highest  advantage  in  themselves  and  tend 
enormously  to  strengthen  China.  Some  phases  of 
her  government — the  brutality  in  the  punishment 
of  crime  and  the  callousness  shown  to  human  life — 
will  probably  remain,  for,  after  all,  China  is  Eastern, 
and  she  cannot  entirely  change  her  character  even 
at  the  imperious  behest  of  modern  civilisation.  But 
such  things  are  not  the  essentials  of  a  scheme  of 
regeneration.  They  may,  at  any  rate,  it  is  thought, 
be  left  for  treatment  to  a  later  period. 

The  slow  progress  which  China  has  made  in 
comparison  with  Japan  is  often  adduced  as  a  proof 
of  the  incapacity  of  the  former  to  assimilate  modern 
ideas.  But  it  is  hardly  fair,  it  is  considered,  to  judge 
the  Chinese  by  this  standard.  Japan  has  always 
been  a  pupil,  and,  until  comparatively  recent  times, 
was  a  pupil  of  China.     On  the  other  hand,  China 


21 8  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

has  for  untold  ages  been  a  teacher,  and  she  now 
finds  it  very  hard  to  drop  the  role  and  enter  into  a 
condition  of  pupilage.  The  change  can  only  be 
effected  gradually.  The  Chinese  reformer  wishes 
to  secure  the  adoption  of  Western  ideas  in  regard  to 
Governmental  administration,  in  regard  to  finance, 
education,  industries,  and  defence ;  but  he  does 
not  wish  to  see  their  old-established  notions  of 
ethics  as  laid  down  by  Confucius  subverted  by  a 
foreign  religion  which  in  their  view  is  inimical  to 
the  factors  which  bind  the  Chinese  people  together 
and  serve  as  the  root  of  their  potential  strength. 

One  great  lesson  which  China  has  to  learn,  and 
which  she  is  learning  slowly,  is  that  she  must  faith- 
fully discharge  all  the  duties  of  government  if  she 
is  to  preserve  her  integrity.  The  matter  is  the 
more  important  as  the  opening  up  of  railways  and 
establishment  of  mining  enterprise,  are  creating  foreign 
interests  in  all  parts  of  the  interior.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  the  present  administration  is  unequal 
to  this  task.  The  need  is  for  an  organised  Civil 
Service,  and  in  course  of  time  one  will  no  doubt 
be  created.  Meanwhile,  the  only  body  capable  of 
undertaking  these  duties  is  the  Customs  Service  ; 
and  it  may  almost  be  said  that  the  fate  of  China 
depends  upon  whether  the  service  does  or  does 
not  perform  the  work.  The  acquiescence  of  the 
Chinese  Government  in  this  suggested  extension  of 


Chinese  Maritime  Customs  219 

the  duties  of  the  Customs  officials  could  doubtless 
be  obtained  eventually  ;  but  what  is  wanted  also  is 
the  co-operation  of  the  foreign  Governments — the 
acknowledgment  by  them  of  the  Customs  Service  in 
its  different  branches  as  a  department  of  the  Chinese 
Government  administration.  Unhappily  this  does 
not  seem  easy  to  secure,  for  at  present,  instead  of 
being  supported  by  foreign  Governments,  the  service 
is  often  obstructed.  So  far  from  being  looked  upon 
as  it  should  be,  as  a  potential  saviour  of  the  country, 
it  is  viewed  with  suspicion.  It  is  not  realised  that 
the  best  interests  of  China  and  those  of  the  com- 
mercial nations  are  absolutely  identical.  Short- 
sighted diplomats  fail  to  grasp  the  fact  that  foreigners 
who  faithfully  and  effectively  serve  China  serve 
also  the  interests  of  the  commercial  nations. 

No  doubt  in  the  case  of  Powers  with  ulterior 
aims  the  existence  of  this  great  service,  largely 
manned  by  the  British  and  with  one  of  our 
countrymen  at  its  head,  is  looked  upon,  not  without 
cause,  as  a  serious  impediment  to  the  realisation 
of  their  ambitions.  But  the  very  reasons  which 
induce,  say  Russia,  to  seek  to  thwart  the  service 
and  limit  its  functions  should  make  the  commercial 
nations,  and  ourselves  especially,  resist  most 
strenuously  any  fundamental  changes  in  it.  The 
strong  action  taken  by  our  Government  in  opposing 
the  intrigue  set  on  foot  some  time  since  to  secure 


220  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

the  appointment  of  a  foreign  nominee  on  Sir  Robert 
Hart's  retirement  was  a  step  in  the  right  direction. 
As  a  result  of  the  stand  then  taken,  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  British  successor  to  that  distinguished 
official  is  assured  as  long  as  British  trade  con- 
tinues in  its  present  predominant  position.  That 
is  an  important  advantage  secured,  but  it  will  be 
of  small  worth  if  our  vigilance  is  not  maintained  and 
wc  do  not  by  all  the  means  at  our  disposal  steadily 
uphold  the  interests  of  the  Service  and  use  our 
endeavours  to  promote  the  spread  of  its  influence 
in  directions  in  which  it  may  be  usefully  em- 
ployed. Our  Government  cannot  be  blind  to  these 
considerations.  Nor  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  in 
pursuance  of  a  strong  policy  in  this  matter  they 
would  encounter  any  serious  difficulties,  for  it 
must  be  obvious  that  any  tampering  with  the 
service  might,  and  probably  would,  result  in 
grave  consequences  to  the  commercial  interests  of 
China. 


■k.. 


CHAPTER    XV 

ANGLO-CHINESE  VIEWS  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  OCCUPATION  OF 
MANCHURIA — SUGGESTED  LINES  OF  A  COMPROMISE — AN 
AGREEMENT  OF  THE  POWERS  ESSENTIAL  TO  CHECK 
RUSSIAN  AGGRESSION — AN  ALLIANCE  WITH  THE  UNITED 
STATES — IS  IT  PRACTICABLE? — A  JOINT  ARRANGEMENT 
INEVITABLE  ULTIMATELY — BENEFICIAL  RESULTS  OF  SUCH 
A  COMBINATION — REORGANISATION  OF  OUR  FOREIGN 
OFFICE   NECESSARY. 

RUSSIAN  aggression,  as  I  have  shown,  is  held 
accountable  in  the  eyes  of  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  for  most  of  the  evils  v^hich  have  befallen 
China.  But  the  strong  feeling  entertained  on  this 
subject  does  not  prevent  an  appreciation  of  what 
may  be  termed  the  Russian  point  of  view.  The 
Russians  have,  with  wonderful  enterprise,  built  a 
railway  which  is  a  benefit  to  the  whole  world. 
Strict  justice  apart,  one  cannot  but  sympathise  with 
the  aspiration  for  an  outlet  on  the  Far  Eastern 
seaboard,  of  which  this  remarkable  scheme  is  the 
material  embodiment.  One  is  the  more  disposed 
to    regard   the    Russian   venture   with  friendly  eyes 


2  22  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

as  the  line  from  Vladivostock  runs  through  a  part 
of  Manchuria  which  is  almost  unpopulated  and 
which  it  may  also  be  said  is  unadministered  by 
China.  Whether  with  a  sound  title  or  not,  Russia 
has  grasped  this  part  of  Manchuria  and  she  is  now 
in  substantial  occupation  of  it. 

Settlements  of  a  character  more  substantial  and 
permanent  than  anything  to  be  seen  in  Siberia,  or 
even  in  Russia  outside  the  big  towns,  exist  along  the 
line  and  are  being  rapidly  extended.  Tens  of 
thousands  of  Russians  of  the  peasant  class  have 
settled  down.  If  China  is  to  regain  her  sovereignty 
over  the  province,  these  Russian  settlers  will  have 
to  be  ejected.  Is  such  a  step  practicable  ?  and  if 
practicable,  is  it  desirable .?  are  questions  to  be  asked. 
The  opinion  of  many  experienced  Anglo-Chinese 
is  that  it  is  not.  But  while  holding  this  view,  they 
draw  a  broad  distinction  between  Northern  and 
Southern  Manchuria.  The  continued  occupation  of 
Newchwang  in  defiance  of  previously  formed  rights 
of  commercial  nations  they  consider  a  grave  menace 
to  commerce,  which  should  not  be  tolerated.  Russia, 
it  is  suggested,  should  be  plainly  and  firmly  told 
that  she  has  no  exclusive  rights  there,  and  that  she 
must  leave.  The  war,  of  course,  has  necessarily 
altered  the  situation.  What  was  possible  a  few 
months  ago  in  the  way  of  diplomacy  is  out  of  the 
question  now.       It   may   prove,  however,  that  the 


Dual  Character  of  Russian  Policy      223 

operations  now  proceeding  will  facilitate  the  ad- 
justment of  this  important  question.  In  any  event, 
our  Government  should  keep  steadily  in  mind  the 
great  importance  which  attaches  to  this  port,  not 
merely  in  a  commercial  sense,  but  as  a  piece  in  the 
great  game  which  is  being  played  out  in  the  Far 
East. 

Russia's  general  policy  in  the  Far  East  is  believed 
to  be  widely  misapprehended.  The  popular  view 
is  that  she  has  a  definite,  well-considered  scheme 
of  expansion,  which  she  pursues  with  relentless 
fixity  of  purpose.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case. 
There  are  really  two  parties  in  Russia.  One  has 
vast  conceptions  of  the  future  of  the  Empire,  and 
is  prepared  to  take  almost  any  risk  to  secure 
their  realisation.  The  other  section  foresees  the 
enormous  difficulties  there  are  in  the  way  of  a 
policy  of  boundless  conquest  and  would  put  a 
limit  to  expansion,  preferring  that  time  should  be 
given  for  the  consolidation  of  her  existing  posses- 
sions. This  division  of  opinion  accounts  for  much 
that  is  otherwise  inexplicable  in  the  policy  that 
Russia  has  pursued  of  late  in  her  dealings  with 
China.  Strong,  ambitious  and  adventurous  men, 
relying  on  the  apathy  of  the  commercial  nations, 
and  confident  of  their  ability  by  one  means  or 
another  to  bend  China  to  their  purpose,  have 
fingered  the  southern  part  of  Manchuria  with  one 


224  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

hand  while  feeling  the  pulse  of  the  world  with  the 
other.  A  direct  conflict  did  not  enter  into  their 
designs.  Their  object  was  to  see  how  far  they  could 
safely  go  and,  when  they  reached  the  extreme  point, 
to  withdraw.  The  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Japan 
goes  to  strengthen  this  view  of  Russian  policy  rather 
than  to  negative  it.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that 
Russia  believed  up  to  the  very  last  moment  that 
there  would  be  no  war.  She  always  hoped  and 
expected  that  she  would  be  able,  as  she  had  done 
on  previous  occasions,  to  extricate  herself  from  her 
difficulties  by  dexterous  diplomacy,  through  the 
medium  of  which,  while  apparently  making  con- 
cessions, she  would  yet  retain  substantial  prizes. 

What  Russia  does  want,  and  has  always  been 
prepared  to  go  great  lengths  for,  is  the  securing 
of  guarantees  that  her  trans- continental  line  on 
which,  she  has  spent  so  much  will  pay.  How  far 
it  would  be  wise  to  yield  to  her  desires  in  this 
respect  is  a  question  for  statesmen,  and  especially 
British  statesmen,  to  seriously  consider.  But  in 
Anglo-Chinese  circles  before  the  war  there  was  a 
widespread  opinion  that  considerable  concessions 
might  be  made  to  her  wishes  without  detriment 
to  the  interests  of  the  commercial  Powers.  It  was 
thought  that  a  compromise  somewhat  on  these  lines 
might  be  arranged  :  Russia  to  have  absolutely  the 
territory  to  the  north  of  the  Vladivostock  line  and 


Policy  Suggested  for  the  Future         225 

a  zone  say  twenty  miles  to  the  southward  of  it  ; 
to  continue  to  hold  on  lease  Port  Arthur  and 
Dalny  ;  to  relinquish  absolutely  all  administrative 
authority  and  military  occupation  elsewhere  in 
Manchuria,  though  she  would  be  permitted  to 
retain  a  specified  number  of  railway  guards. 

In  these  opinions  that  I  have  cited  we  have  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  Far  Eastern  question 
as  it  presents  itself  to  the  view  of  men  who  from 
wide  experience  and  close  study  of  the  facts  are 
entitled  to  speak  with  some  degree  of  authority. 
The  theories  and  suggestions  put  forward  seem  to 
my  mind  to  be  deserving  of  the  closest  examination. 
They  suggest  a  distinct  policy  which  might  be 
followed  with  a  reasonable  certainty  of  ultimate 
success.  The  upholding  at  all  costs  of  the  integrity 
of  the  Chinese  Empire  ;  the  resolute  maintenance 
of  all  treaty  rights,  and  unyielding  resistance  to 
the  cession  to  foreign  countries  of  privileges  cal- 
culated even  indirectly  to  infringe  them  ;  the  reform 
of  China  from  within  ;  the  entrusting  to  the 
Maritime  Customs  Service  of  extended  duties  in 
the  general  field  of  administration  ;  and  an  arrange- 
ment with  Russia  on  the  basis  of  a  modified 
occupation  of  Manchuria, — these  are  the  main 
points  in  the  programme.  How  the  policy  outlined 
is  to  be  effectually  introduced  and  applied  is  a 
matter  which    remains  for    consideration.       This  is 

15 


226  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

the  paramount  question  ;  for  clearly,  however  sound 
and  statesmanlike  our  policy  may  be,  it  will  have 
little  force  if  it  is  not  introduced  under  proper 
conditions.  The  first  essential  is  an  agreement 
with  other  Powers  whose  interests  in  China  are 
identical  with  our  own.  Our  treaty  with  Japan  was 
a  recognition  of  this  need  ;  but  important  as  that 
instrument  is,  the  value  of  it  is  likely  to  be  greatly 
lessened  if  it  is  not  supplemented  by  other  arrange- 
ments. It  is  conceivable,  indeed,  that  it  may  prove 
worse  than  useless  by  involving  us  in  complications 
to  the  ultimate  detriment  of  our  position  in  China. 
The  ideal  solution  would  be  a  combination  of  all 
the  commercial  Powers  interested  in  China.  But 
for  the  moment  this  appears  impossible  of  attain- 
ment. Germany  is  a  factor  which  would  prevent 
any  grouping  of  this  kind.  We  have  had  painful 
experience  of  what  her  ideas  of  combination  in 
China  mean.  The  arrangement  which  she  is  pleased 
to  call  the  Yangtse  agreement  is  a  standing  proof 
of  the  impossibility  of  co-operation  with  her  in  the 
work  of  safeguarding  China  from  disruption.  De- 
signed as  an  instrument  for  the  preservation  of 
China's  integrity,  it  was  at  the  earliest  convenient 
moment  turned  to  our  disadvantage  by  being 
construed  in  a  particular  instead  of  a  general  sense  ; 
and  as  if  to  add  insult  to  injury,  the  world 
was  informed  that  Manchuria  was  specially  excluded 


Arrangement  with  America  Desirable     227 

from  its  scope.  The  simple  truth  is  that  Germany- 
dare  not  offend  Russia  and  she  will  not  move  a 
finger  to  prevent  her  aggressive  designs,  whatever 
their  scope  may  be.  On  the  other  hand,  as  she 
has  shown  by  the  way  in  which  she  has  exploited 
Shantung,  she  is  perfectly  ready  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  despoiling  of  China  if  she  can  do  so 
with  safety. 

France,  who  was  suggested  in  Mr.  Meadows' 
interesting  essay  quoted  in  the  previous  chapter,  as 
a  member  of  an  alliance  for  the  defence  of  China, 
is  ruled  out  of  court  by  the  fact  that  she  is  too 
deeply  involved  by  her  alliance  with  Russia  to  be 
an  eligible  partner.  She  might  be  induced  to  join 
at  a  later  stage  of  the  business,  when  the  foundations 
of  a  powerful  combination  were  laid  ;  but  more 
than  this  could  not  be  expected :  it  is  elsewhere 
that  an  ally  must  be  sought. 

If  we  examine  the  latest  trade  returns  of  China, 
we  see  at  once  the  direction  in  which  the  additional 
elements  of  a  Far  Eastern  alliance  may  be  sought. 
According  to  the  official  figures,  next  to  ourselves 
the  United  States  contribute  the  largest  share  to 
the  volume  of  Chinese  trade.  In  1901 — the  last 
year  for  which  returns  are  available — she  sent  to 
China  goods  of  the  value  of  ;^ 3,47 6,000,  and 
took  from  China  goods  worth  jf 2,45 8, 000.  Her 
trade  altogether  was  within   ^^9 16,000  of  the  total 


22  8  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

of  that  of  all  European  countries  other  than  Great 
Britain  with  China ;  and  it  is  a  trade  which  is 
making  enormous  strides,  the  increase  during  the 
year  being  represented  by  the  high  figure  of 
^2,080,000,  or  more  than  one-third.  The  com- 
pletion of  the  Panama  Canal  will  powerfully 
strengthen  existing  ties.  The  United  States  then 
will  be  predominant  in  the  Pacific.  It  is  manifest, 
indeed,  that  the  maintenance  of  the  integrity 
of  China  is  almost  as  great  an  American  as  it 
is  a  British  interest.  That  this  view  is  clearly  re- 
cognised by  the  Government  at  Washington  we 
have  had  abundant  evidence  lately — notably  in  the 
issue  of  Mr.  Hay's  circular  to  the  Powers  inviting 
their  adhesion  to  a  pledge  to  maintain  inviolate 
the  Chinese  dominions.  But  though  the  United 
States  has  shown  herself  commendably  active  in  Far 
Eastern  affairs  of  late,  we  cannot  forget  that  a 
cardinal  feature  of  her  foreign  policy  is  strict 
diplomatic  independence.  The  theory  of  her  con- 
stitution is  that  she  stands  apart  from  the  jarring 
elements  of  European  diplomacy  and  that  alliances 
are  beyond  her  needs  and  her  interests.  This 
was  a  rule  which  served  her  purposes  well  in 
the  days  not  far  remote,  when  the  American  con- 
tinent contained  all  that  was  necessary  to  the  satis- 
faction of  her  ambitions.  But  the  war  with  Spain 
completely  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.     Jt  brought 


Attitude  of  United  States  Government     229 

her  at  one  bound  into  the  orbit  of  international 
politics  and  whether  she  desired  it  or  not,  she  had 
to  assume  the  added  responsibilities  which  that 
position  created  for  her.  Every  year  that  has  passed 
since  then  has  drawn  her  further  away  from  her  old 
traditions.  A  semblance  of  independence  has  been, 
and  indeed  is  still  maintained  ;  but  every  despatch 
sent  out  from  the  Foreign  Department  at  Washington 
has  brought  her  nearer  the  position  which  the 
Western  Powers  occupy,  since  in  the  higher  politics, 
as  in  ordinary  political  life,  support  from  outside  has 
at  some  time  or  other  to  be  sought  if  success  is  to 
be  achieved. 

This  being  the  position,  it  becomes  of  interest  to 
inquire  whether  in  the  crisis  which  has  arisen  and 
in  which  she  is  so  deeply  concerned  she  will  not  go 
a  step  further  and  definitively  abandon  her  splendid 
isolation.  The  question  is  one  which,  having 
regard  to  the  controlling  power  which  the  Senate 
exercises  over  foreign  affairs,  admits  of  no  ready 
reply.  But  looking  at  the  position  of  affairs  in 
the  Far  East — to  the  existing  grouping  of 
powers  inimical  to  Chinese  integrity  and  to 
the  jealousy  with  which  American  intervention 
in  international  politics  is  regarded  by  Germany, 
it  seems  impossible  that  the  American  Govern- 
ment can  long  withstand  the  almost  irresistible  in- 
fluences   which    are   driving    her    to    combine    with 


230  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

us  in  upholding  China's  independence.  It  is  easy 
to  perceive  that  if  she  acts  alone  she  may  some 
day  find  herself  compelled  to  make  a  choice  between 
waging  a  dubious  war  with  a  combination  of 
European  Powers  and  beating  a  humiliating  retreat 
from  a  diplomatic  position  strongly  taken  up. 
Diplomacy  may  be  superlatively  clever,  but  if  it  is 
backed  inadequately  by  physical  means,  it  soon 
loses  its  moral  force.  Considerations  so  obvious 
as  these  cannot,  I  am  sure,  have  been  overlooked 
at  Washington,  and  if  I  am  not  greatly  mistaken 
the  way  is  already  being  paved  for  a  departure 
perhaps  the  most  momentous  that  has  ever  been 
taken  by  the  United  States  since  she  became  an 
independent  Power. 

The  question  of  the  abolition  of  the  likin 
is  admittedly  a  stumbling-block.  The  United 
States  policy  and  ours  are  not  altogether  in 
harmony  on  this  subject.  While  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  internal  duties  which  go  by  the 
name  of  likin  is  a  great  desideratum  with  us, 
the  Americans  would  prefer  their  continuance  to 
the  imposition  of  the  5  per  cent,  extra  import 
duty  which  is  substituted  for  them  under 
the  arrangement  concluded  by  Sir  James  Mackay. 
Though  the  controversy  is  a  thorny  one,  it  cannot 
be  supposed  that  it  will  be  permitted  to  keep  the 
two    Governments    apart.     Some   compromise   will, 


League  of  Commercial  Powers  Possible     231 

it  may  be  safely  surmised,  be  found  by  which  the 
views,  at  present  conflicting,  will  be  reconciled. 
Personally  I  look  to  the  completion  of  a  union  of 
the  Governments  of  the  two  great  English-speaking 
races  as  one  of  the  certainties  of  a  future  which  is 
not  distant.  It  is  probable  that  at  the  outset  an 
alliance  between  ourselves  and  the  United  States 
in  the  Far  East  will  be  disguised  in  the  form  of 
an  agreement  which  can  be  represented  to  the  world 
as  something  quite  different  from  the  genuine 
diplomatic  article,  but  the  essential  thing  will  be 
there,  and  that  is  the  important  matter. 

The  formation  of  a  Triple  Alliance  between 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Japan,  would 
go  a  long  way  to  settle  the  Far  Eastern  question 
on  enduring  lines.  Such  a  combination  would 
wield  a  power  which  could  not  be  resisted  and 
it  is  probable  that  it  would  ultimately  develop 
into  a  league  of  all  the  great  Powers  to  preserve 
the  status  quo  in  the  Far  East.  To  China  her- 
self the  moral  support  of  a  coalition  of  the  kind 
would  be  of  inestimable  benefit.  Freed  from  the 
haunting  fear  of  attacks  from  without,  she  would 
be  able  to  set  her  house  in  order.  The  better 
elements  in  the  country  would  assert  themselves 
with  the  assurance  that  their  efforts  to  improve 
the  administration  would  receive  support.  The 
development    of    the   country   would    proceed    on 


232  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

sound  economic  lines,  and  commerce  under  the 
vivifying  influence  of  stable  Government  would 
increase  enormously.  In  fine,  a  new  era  would  be 
opened  up,  fraught  with  the  brightest  possibilities 
for  China  and  the  trade  of  the  world. 

On  our  own  part,  if  we  are  to  reap  the  full 
advantages  of  common  action  in  the  Far  East,  we 
must  be  prepared  to  make  considerable  changes  in 
our  system  of  dealing  with  questions  affecting  that 
part  of  the  world.  I  am  not  one  of  those  who 
think  that  nothing  good  can  come  out  of  our 
Foreign  Office.  Having  regard  to  the  tremendous 
issues  entrusted  to  it  and  the  comparatively  small 
means  placed  at  its  disposal  for  the  discharge  of 
its  duties,  I  think  it  does  its  work  exceedingly 
well  and  deserves  the  gratitude  of  the  country. 
But,  like  other  of  our  Government  departments,  it 
has  in  some  respects  got  out  of  date.  It  was 
organised  for  a  state  of  affairs  in  which  the  only 
foreign  questions  of  importance  were  centred  in 
two  or  three  European  capitals  and  attained  to 
fame  at  a  period  when  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
French,  combined  with  ability,  was  sufficient  to  enable 
a  Foreign  Office  official  to  properly  discharge  his 
duties.  The  position  is  very  different  now.  The 
storm  centre  of  diplomacy  has  travelled  away  from 
Europe  into  regions  undreamt  of  a  half-century 
ago  as  possible  scenes  of  international  controversy. 


Reorganisation  of  Foreign  Office  Necessary  233 

Africa,  Australia  and  America  have  in  turn  been 
brought     into     prominence     by    the     kaleidoscopic 
changes    of    the    world's    politics.       But    it    is    in 
Asia  that  are   seated  the  greatest  disturbing   forces 
which   are   convulsing    the    chancellories  and   there 
the    greatest     external    interests    of    this    country 
lie.      Such  is  our  position   that  we  dare  not,  even 
if    we    would,    treat    the    issues    raised    with    in- 
difference.    If  we  wish  to  hold  our  own,  we  must 
bring   to  bear  upon  them   not  only  the  diplomatic 
finesse  of  the  trained  intellect  of  Whitehall,  but  the 
ripe   experience   and  judgment   of  men  who   have 
spent  the  best  part  of  their  lives  in  dealing  with 
some  phase  or  other  of  the  problems  which  arise. 
The  existing  constitution  of  the  Foreign  Office,  I 
fear,  does  not  provide  for  this  union  of  forces,  at 
all   events    to   the    extent   desirable   and   necessary. 
What  is  wanted,  in  my  judgment,  is  the  application 
to  Far  Eastern  affairs  of  the  broad  principles  which 
govern  the  conduct  of  the  concerns  of  India  in  this 
country.     There  should  be  a  thoroughly  organised 
and  well-equipped  Asiatic  department,  whose  duty 
it   would    be    to   have    its   finger   on    the   pulse  of 
Asiatic  politics  and  be  ready  at  all  times  to  advise 
the  Government  of  the  day  on  questions  of  current 
interest  affecting  that  part  of  the  world.     I  am  not 
sure  that  the  plan  of  the  Indian  Council,  modified 
to  suit  the  special  requirements  of  the  department, 


234  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

might  not  be  followed  with  advantage.  Certainly 
there  should  be  found  some  means  of  utilising,  in 
an  advisory  capacity,  the  wealth  of  ability  which 
exists  in  the  ranks  of  the  retired  officials  and 
merchants  who  have  spent  the  best  years  of  their 
lives  in  Asia,  The  subject  is  one  which  has  not 
so  far  received  the  full  attention  it  deserves,  but 
it  cannot  much  longer  be  evaded.  If  we  are  to  hold 
our  position  in  the  East,  it  is  of  the  first  importance 
that  the  agency  by  which  our  diplomacy  is  directed 
should  be  armed  at  all  points  with  that  special 
knowledge  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  long 
residence  in  the  East. 


CHAPTER    XVI    {Conclusion) 

THE  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  WAR — EFFECT  OF  JAPAN's  SUCCESSES 
ON  THE  ASIATIC  MIND — JAPANESE  INTERVENTION  IN 
CHINA  AND  ITS  DANGER — THE  JAPANISATION  OF  CHINA 
MUST  BE  RESISTED — IMPORTANCE  OF  BRINGING  THE  WAR 
TO  A  CLOSE  AT  THE  EARLIEST  PERIOD — A  CONFERENCE 
OF  THE  POWERS  DESIRABLE  AFTER  PEACE  IS  CONCLUDED — 
CONCLUDING    OBSERVATIONS. 

IN  this  final  chapter  I  have  left  for  consideration — 
appropriately,  I  think  my  readers  will  concede 
— the  problems  which  may  be  expected  to  arise  out 
of  the  conflict  which  is  at  present  raging  in  the 
Far  East  between  Russia  and  Japan.  Writing  as 
I  do  while  the  issue  is  still  uncertain,  it  is  manifestly 
impossible  to  appraise  the  precise  importance  of  the 
events  now  occurring  at  the  seat  of  war.  But  there 
are  certain  aspects  of  the  situation  upon  which  it 
seems  to  me  speculation  may  be  usefully  employed. 
I  may,  perhaps,  go  further,  and  say  that  it  is  highly 
desirable  that  we  should  make  a  careful  examination 
of  the  possibilities   of   the   struggle,  in   order   that 

we    may  be   prepared    to    act  at  the  right  moment 

23s 


236  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

in  the  manner  which  best  accords  with  our  interests. 
This  appears  the  more  necessary  as  the  crisis  is  no 
common  one.  We  are  in  the  presence  of  events 
which  are  without  parallel  in  modern  history.  For 
the  first  time  an  Eastern  and  a  Western  nation 
are  pitted  against  each  other,  both  using  modern 
weapons  and  using  them  on  something  like  equal 
terms.  The  tremendous  significance  of  this  cir- 
cumstance must  be  apparent  to  the  most  superficial 
observer.  It  is  to  some  extent  a  readjusting  of  the 
balance  which  has  so  long  fallen  heavily  against 
the  East.  Whatever  may  be  the  upshot  of  the 
war,  things  cannot  go  on  afterwards  quite  the  same 
as  they  have  done  in  Asia.  To  use  a  homely 
expression,  the  Easterns  have  been  made  to  feel 
their  feet.  They  have  been  taught  that  there  is 
nothing  supernormal  in  the  Western.  Armed  with 
his  weapons,  directed  by  his  ideas  and  disciplined 
in  the  same  fashion  as  he  is,  the  Eastern  can,  in 
not  specially  favourable  circumstances,  do  quite  as 
well  and  even  beat  him  at  his  own  game.  It  is  a 
startling  lesson,  which  we  may  be  sure  will  not  be 
lost. 

The  Eastern  is  an  impressionable  mind.  It 
quickly  responds  to  influences,  especially  when 
they  harmonise  with  the  drift  of  its  sentiment. 
A  new  and  striking  idea  is  broached.  With 
lightning  rapidity  it  circulates,  producing  the  most 


Effect  of  War  on  Asiatic  Mind        237 

extraordinary  ferment.  This  was  the  case  in  India 
on  the  occasion  of  the  Mutiny  ;  it  was  the  case 
also  in  China  during  the  Boxer  outbreak.  If  the 
Asiatic  temperament  is  not  seriously  misunderstood, 
it  will  happen  again  in  the  present  instance.  From 
one  end  of  Asia  to  the  other  the  news  will  go 
forth — nay,  probably  is  going  forth — that  the  career 
of  the  all-victorious  European  has  received  a  severe 
check  at  the  hands  of  an  Asiatic  Power — that  at  last 
the  Eastern  is  getting  back  something  of  his  own. 
Prestige  is  a  word  which  it  was  the  fashion  some- 
time since  of  a  certain  section  in  this  country  to 
deride.  It  was  represented  as  a  mere  empty- 
sounding  phrase,  used  for  the  most  part  to  cover 
aggressive  designs  which  could  not  in  themselves 
be  justified.  For  my  own  part,  I  prefer  to  adopt 
the  view  of  the  definition  of  the  word  expressed 
by  Baron  von  Hiibner  in  his  work  on  British 
India.  "  What  is  prestige  ^  "  asked  the  distinguished 
diplomat.  "  Every  one  I  meet  speaks  of  it  and  no 
one  has  yet  been  able  satisfactorily  to  define  it.  To 
my  mind,  if  you  succeed  in  inspiring  me  with  the 
idea  that  you  are  stronger  than  I  am,  you  exercise 
prestige  over  me.  The  less  the  conviction  on  my 
part  is  founded  on  reason,  the  deeper  it  is.  If 
once  it  rises  to  the  height  of  an  article  of  faith, 
the  prestige  will  be  complete.  Dictionaries  call 
*  prestige '    an  '  illusion,'    but   this    definition  seems 


238  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

to  me  erroneous.  So  long  as  it  is  based  on  real 
superiority,  prestige  has  nothing  illusory  about  it. 
It  becomes  an  illusion  when  reality  ceases  to  corre- 
spond with  appearance."  ^  These  shrewd  words 
appear  to  me  to  aptly  describe  that  intangible 
influence  which  has  given  a  force  to  European 
authority  throughout  Asia  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  actual  strength  which  it  is  able  to  summon 
to  its  aid.  If  the  feeling  be  destroyed  or  even 
weakened,  consequences  of  the  most  far-reaching 
character  may  result.  As  far  as  the  ultimate  results 
are  concerned,  it  matters  not  from  whence  the  blow 
comes.  Though  in  certain  areas  the  people  are 
sufficiently  instructed  to  be  able  to  draw  distinctions 
between  one  Power  and  another,  Asia  in  the  bulk 
classes  all  European  nationalities  under  one  head 
and  regards  them  as  people  to  be  feared  and  hated. 
Remove  the  fear  and  the  hate  may  come  to  the  top 
with  startling  consequences. 

It  is  this  aspect  of  the  present  crisis  which  should 
make  us  keep  well  in  check  those  natural  feelings 
of  sympathy  with  the  Japanese  for  the  gallant  stand 
they  are  making  against  Russia  in  the  Far  East. 
We  cannot,  if  we  would,  dissociate  ourselves  from 
the  community  of  racial  interest  which  binds  us,  as 
a  great  Euro-Asiatic  Power,  to  Russia.  Her  defeat 
and  humiliation  might,  and  doubtless  would,  redound 

*  Von  Hiibner's  Through  the  British  Empire,  p.  412. 


Japan  as  Protector  of  Eastern  Races     239 

to  our  advantage  in  many  ways  ;  but  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  it  would  in  the  long  run  create  for 
us  difficulties  of  a  most  serious  kind.  Through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  China,  on  to  the  bazaars 
of  Central  Asia  and  India,  and  beyond  to  the  centres 
of  Mohammedan  fanaticism  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
Egypt,  the  word  would  be  passed  that  at  last  the 
mighty  had  fallen — at  last  the  day  of  emancipation 
from  European  thraldom  had  come.  A  common 
movement  inimical  to  Western  influence  might  not 
result  immediately,  but  there  would  probably  ensue 
a  dangerous  condition  of  ferment  which  would  act 
and  react  upon  our  power  in  India  and  at  the  other 
centres  in  Asia  where  it  is  seated. 

This  is  a  phenomenon  which  it  would  be  wise 
to  look  for,  even  if  Japan  used  her  advantages 
with  perfect  moderation.  If  she  elected,  on  the 
strength  of  her  victory,  to  fill  an  ambitious  role  and 
stand  out  as  the  protector  of  the  Eastern  races,  as 
some  suppose  she  may  do,  then  the  position  would 
become  distinctly  more  serious.  We  should  have 
a  new  Munroe  doctrine  without  the  safeguards 
for  the  maintenance  of  existing  interests  which 
that  famous  instrument  of  American  diplomacy 
embodies,  and  devoid  of  the  guarantees  of  respect 
for  individual  rights  by  which  it  is  accompanied. 
It  would  be  a  case  of  Asia  strictly  for  the  Asiatics, 
with    a    liberal     interpretation     of     the     legitimate 


240  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

geographical  limits  within  which  the  decree  should 
run. 

I  do  not  myself  think   that  there  is  any  great 
fear  of  the  development  of  the  Yellow  Peril  in  this 
form.     Racial  and  religious  differences  alike  forbid 
the  notion.     In  the  world's  history  there  has  never 
been    perfect  unity  amongst    the   various   elements 
of  the  population  of  the  East,  and  in  my  humble 
judgment    there    never    will    be.       But    what    may 
reasonably  be  expected  to  happen  is  that  the  triumph 
of  Japan  will    be    followed  by  what,    for  want   of 
a  better   term,  has  been  called   the  Japanisation  of 
China.     There  is  a  similarity  of  race  and  a  com- 
munity of  thought  between  the  Mikado's   subjects 
and    the    Chinese,    and    these   attributes — especially 
after   a   period   of  severe  stress  in  which    the  one 
had   shown    themselves   to    be   peculiarly   fitted    to 
play   the    tutor    to    the   other — may   be   calculated 
to  bring   them  closely   together.     Over  and   above 
this  there  is  the   strong,   steady,   almost  passionate 
determination    that    the   Japanese    have    to    extend 
their    influence,    political    and    commercial,    to    the 
sister  empire.     This  has  been  manifested  for  a  long 
time  in  ways  indicated  in  earlier  chapters  ;    and  as 
Japan  never  does  anything  without  a  definite  end, 
we  cannot  but  suppose  that  the  agents  with  which 
she    has    been    flooding    the    country    for    a    long 
time    past    are    the    chosen    apostles    appointed    to 


Protectionist  Policy  of  Japan  241 

prepare  the  way  for  a  new  dispensation  in  which 
Japan  will  be  the  commanding  figure.  The  re- 
organisation of  the  Chinese  army  and  the  re-creation 
of  her  navy  figure  in  the  forefront  of  the  pro- 
gramme. They  are  the  essential  preliminaries  to  the 
execution  of  the  design.  When  the  work  in  that 
direction  is  completed,  the  time  will  be  ripe  for 
the  assertion  of  a  well-defined  influence  on  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  In  that 
day  we  may  find  the  old  Japanese  spirit  of  ex- 
clusiveness  asserting  itself  unpleasantly  to  our 
detriment,  not  less  than  to  that  of  other  Western 
nations. 

Tn  commercial  matters  especially  trouble  may  be 
expected.  Japan  is  a  rigidly  Protectionist  country. 
She  has  always  been  so,  and,  as  I  have  before  stated, 
the  tendency  is  rather  to  enhance  duties  than  to 
lower  them.  The  exhaustion  caused  by  the  war 
will  compel  her  to  look  for  means  to  repair  the 
financial  ravages  she  has  sustained,  and  what  more 
natural  than  that  she  should  cast  her  eyes  to  China 
and  seek  to  find  there  the  compensation  for  her 
sacrifices.  Direct  differential  duties  in  her  favour 
are  probably  not  to  be  looked  for,  but  she  may  be 
given  special  advantages  which  will  in  the  long 
run  be  quite  as  beneficial  to  her,  and  equally  as 
detrimental  to  Western  commercial  nations.  There 
is  certainly  a  rock  ahead  in    this   direction    which 

16 


242  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

requires  to  be  carefully  guarded  against.  We  must 
not  in  our  anxiety  to  avoid  the  Russian  Scylla  drive 
on  the  Japanese  Charybdis. 

Our  policy  in  regard  to  China  after  the  war,  as 
well  as  before  it,  should  have  for  its  cardinal  feature 
the  absolute  independence  of  China.  If  there  are 
to  be  reforms,  they  must  come  from  within,  not 
from  without.  There  must  be  no  Japanisation  in 
the  sense  that  Japan  is  given  or  assumes  for  herself 
a  mandate  to  "  regenerate  "  China.  She  must  have 
her  share  in  the  work  of  observation  and  supervision, 
but  there  her  mission  must  end.  This  attitude 
would  be  assumed  by  us  from  no  jealousy  of  our 
ally  and  without  any  desire  to  circumscribe  the 
legitimate  influence  which  will  attach  to  her  position 
as  the  victor  in  this  struggle  ;  but  simply  and 
solely  because  we  will  not  swerve  one  iota  from 
the  principle  upon  which  our  Chinese  policy  is 
based,  believing  as  we  do  that  through  that  policy 
alone  is  to  be  found  an  enduring  settlement  of  the 
Far  Eastern  question. 

It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  Japan  will  attempt  to 
push  her  forward  policy  if  we  make  our  position 
clear  at  the  outset.  Her  whole  future  is  bound  up 
in  the  maintenance  of  her  alliance  with  us.  What- 
ever may  be  the  result  of  the  war,  she  will  at  its 
close  stand  in  need  of  a  strong  supporting  hand. 
She  will   be  fortunate,  indeed,  if  she  escapes  from 


Japanisation  of  China  Improbable        243 

a  hostile  coalition  to  deprive  her  of  the  fruits  of 
victory,  as  on  the  occasion  of  her  war  with  China. 
Moderation  will  be  imposed  upon  her  by  the 
necessities  of  her  position.  With  the  susceptibilities 
of  certain  of  the  Western  Powers  keenly  aroused, 
she  will  need  to  walk  with  extreme  circumspection 
if  she  is  to  avoid  another  entanglement.  Looking 
at  all  the  probabilities,  we  may  fairly  assume,  I 
think,  that  the  Japanisation  of  China  is  beyond  the 
range  of  the  practical  politics  of  the  immediate 
future.  That  it  may  come  some  day  I  am  quite 
willing,  for  the  reasons  I  have  already  given,  to 
concede  ;  but  with  proper  diplomacy  on  our  part 
it  ought  to  be  deferred  to  a  period  when  it  would 
involve  us  less  seriously  than  at  present. 

The  war  is  so  disturbing  in  its  existing  aspects, 
so  menacing  in  its  future  possibilities,  that  the  best 
energies  of  our  Government  should  be  directed  to 
limiting  its  duration.  Unhappily  the  time  is  not 
yet  to  talk  about  a  settlement,  but  opportunity  may 
offer  later  on  for  our  friendly  intervention,  and  then 
we  should  endeavour  to  secure  the  completion  of 
an  arrangement  which,  while  it  will  give  all  the 
guarantees  needed  for  protection  of  commerical 
interests  in  the  Far  East,  will  yet  not  bring  a  per- 
manent humiliation  on  either  party.  The  general 
lines  of  a  treaty  of  peace  such  as  would  answer  to 
this  description  are  fairly  obvious.     Japan  in  Korea 


244  Far  Eastern  Impressions 

would  have  a  sphere  of  influence  suited  to  her 
genius  and  Russia,  under  the  strict  conditions  out- 
lined in  the  previous  chapter,  might  be  left  in 
possession  of  her  railway  and  the  territory  dependent 
on  it.  In  addition  there  would  be  a  mutual 
guarantee  of  the  integrity  of  China.  To  give  such 
an  instrument  as  this  sanction  there  should  be  a 
conference  of  the  great  Western  Powers,  with  the 
United  States  and  Japan  added.  At  this  might  be 
discussed  the  measures  which  should  be  adopted  to 
maintain  inviolate  the  Chinese  dominions  and  with 
them  the  peace  of  the  Far  East.  Absolute  harmony 
could  not  probably  be  hoped  for  in  view  of  the 
conflict  of  interests,  but  many  useful  points  might 
be  settled  and  an  understanding  arrived  at  on 
minor  yet  highly  important  matters  aff'ecting  the 
main  issue.  The  conference,  however  it  might 
result,  would  not  render  the  less  desirable  or 
necessary  the  combination  with  the  United  States 
to  which  I  have  referred.  It  would  rather  make 
such  a  diplomatic  departure  the  more  desirable,  for 
the  decisions  come  to  would  require  the  binding 
sanction  of  a  reserve  of  force  and  this  could  only 
be  completely  assured  by  a  union  between  the  three 
Powers  whose  interests  are  chiefly  bound  up  in  the 
preservation  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

Here  I  must  leave  this  great  Far  Eastern  problem. 
In  its  engrossing  interest  and  its  enormous  importance 


Interest  in  the  Far  Eastern  Problem     245 

it  has  not  been  surpassed  by  any  question  of  inter- 
national politics  which  has  been  before  Europe  in 
modern  times.  Hitherto  too  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  it  by  our  public  men.  Interest, 
however,  is  now  thoroughly  aroused,  and  if  any- 
thing I  have  said  will  assist  to  stimulate  it,  the 
object  of  this  little  work  will  have  been  thoroughly 
accomplished. 


APPENDIX 


THE  following  is  a  reproduction  of  the  Parlia- 
mentary Paper  (Japan,  No.  j,  1902)  em- 
bodying the  despatch  to  His  Majesty's  Minister  at 
Tokio  relative  to  the  agreement  concluded  between 
Great  Britain  and  Japan  on  January  30,   1902  : 

The  Marquis   of    Lansdowne  to   Sir    C.   Mac- 

DONALD. 

Foreign  Office,  January  ^o,  1902. 

Sir, — I  have  signed  to-day,  with  the  Japanese  Minister, 
an  Agreement  between  Great  Britain  and  Japan,  of 
which  a  copy  is  enclosed  in  this  despatch. 

This  Agreement  may  be  regarded  as  the  outcome 
of  the  events  which  have  taken  place  during  the  last 
two  years  in  the  Far  East,  and  of  the  part  taken 
by  Great  Britain  and  Japan  in  dealing  with  them. 

Throughout  the  troubles  and  complications  which 
arose  in  China  consequent  upon  the  Boxer  outbreak 
and  the  attack  upon  the  Pekin  Legations,  the  two 
Powers  have  been  in  close  and  uninterrupted  com- 
munication and  have  been  actuated  by  similar  views. 

We  have  each  of  us  desired  that  the  integrity  and 
independence  of  the   Chinese  Empire   should    be   pre- 

247 


248  Appendix 

served,  that  there  should  be  no  disturbance  of  the 
territorial  status  quo  either  in  China  or  in  the  adjoining 
regions,  that  all  nations  should,  within  those  regions, 
as  well  as  within  the  limits  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  be 
afforded  equal  opportunities  for  the  development  of 
their  commerce  and  industry  and  that  peace  should 
not  only  be  restored,  but  should,  for  the  future,  be 
maintained. 

From  the  frequent  exchanges  of  views  which  have 
taken  place  between  the  two  Governments  and  from 
the  discovery  that  their  Far  Eastern  policy  was 
identical,  it  has  resulted  that  each  side  has  expressed 
the  desire  that  their  common  policy  should  find 
expression  in  an  international  contract  of  binding 
validity. 

We  have  thought  it  desirable  to  record  in  the  Pre- 
amble of  that  instrument  the  main  objects  of  our 
common  policy  in  the  Far  East  to  which  I  have  already 
referred  and  in  the  first  article  we  join  in  entirely 
disclaiming  any  aggressive  tendencies  either  in  China 
or  Korea.  We  have,  however,  thought  it  necessary 
also  to  place  on  record  the  view  entertained  by  both 
the  High  Contracting  Parties,  that  should  their  interests 
as  above  described  be  endangered,  it  will  be  admissible 
for  either  of  them  to  take  such  measures  as  may  be 
indispensable  in  order  to  safeguard  those  interests  and 
words  have  been  added  which  will  render  it  clear  that 
such  "precautionary  measures  might  become  necessary 
and  might  be  legitimately  taken,  not  only  in  the  case 
of  aggressive  action  or  of  an  actual  attack  by  some 
other  Power,  but  in  the  event  of  disturbances  arising 
of  a  character  to  necessitate  the  intervention  of  either 
of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  for  the  protection  of 
the  lives  and  property  of  its  subjects. 

The  principal  obligations  undertaken  mutually  by  the 


Lord  Lansdowne^s  Despatch  249 

High  Contracting  Parties  are  those  of  maintaining  a 
strict  neutrality  in  the  event  of  either  of  them  becoming 
involved  in  war  and  of  coming  to  one  another's  assist- 
ance in  the  event  of  either  of  them  being  confronted  by 
the  opposition  of  more  than  one  hostile  Power.  Under 
the  remaining  provisions  of  the  Agreement,  the  High 
Contracting  Parties  undertake  that  neither  of  them 
will,  without  consultation  with  the  other,  enter  into 
separate  arrangements  with  another  Power  to  the  preju- 
dice of  the  interests  described  in  the  agreement  and 
that  whenever  those  interests  are  in  jeopardy  they  will 
communicate  with  one  another  fully  and  frankly. 

The  concluding  Article  has  reference  to  the  duration 
of  the  Agreement  which,  after  five  years,  is  terminable 
by  either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  at  one  year's 
notice. 

His  Majesty's  Government  have  been  largely  in- 
fluenced in  their  decision  to  enter  into  this  important 
contract  by  the  conviction  that  it  contains  no  provisions 
which  can  be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  aggressive 
or  self-seeking  tendencies  in  the  regions  to  which  it 
applies.  It  has  been  concluded  purely  as  a  measure  of 
precaution,  to  be  invoked,  should  occasion  arise,  in  the 
defence  of  important  British  interests.  It  in  no  way 
threatens  the  present  position  or  the  legitimate  interests 
of  other  Powers.  On  the  contrary,  that  part  of  it  which 
renders  either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  liable 
to  be  called  upon  by  the  other  for  assistance  can  operate 
only  when  one  of  the  allies  has  found  himself  obliged 
to  go  to  war  in  defence  of  interests  which  are  common 
to  both,  when  the  circumstances  in  which  he  has  taken 
this  step  are  such  as  to  establish  that  the  quarrel  has 
not  been  of  his  own  seeking,  and  when,  being  engaged 
in  his  own  defence,  he  finds  himself  threatened,  not 
by  a  single  Power,  but  by  a  hostile  coalition. 


25°  Appendix 

His  Majesty's  Government  trust  that  the  Agreement 
may  be  found  of  mutual  advantage  to  the  two  countries, 
that  it  will  make  for  the  preservation  of  peace  and 
that,  should  peace  unfortunately  be  broken,  it  will 
have  the  effect  of  restricting  the  area  of  hostilities. 

I  am,  etc., 

Lansdowne. 


ENCLOSURE 

AGREEMENT   BETWEEN    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    JAPAN 
SIGNED  AT  LONDON,  JANUARY   30,    1902. 

The  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Japan, 
actuated  solely  by  a  desire  to  maintain  the  status  quo 
and  general  peace  in  the  extreme  East,  being  more- 
over specially  interested  in  maintaining  the  indepen- 
dence and  territorial  integrity  of  the  Empire  of  China 
and  the  Empire  of  Korea,  and  in  securing  equal  oppor- 
tunities in  those  countries  for  the  commerce  and  industry 
of  all  nations,  hereby  agree  as  follows  : 

Article    I. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties,  having  mutually 
recognised  the  independence  of  China  and  of  Korea, 
declare  themselves  to  be  entirely  uninfluenced  by  any 
aggressive  tendencies  in  either  country.  Having  in 
view,  however,  their  special  interests,  of  which  those  of 
Great  Britain  relate  principally  to  China,  while  Japan 
in  addition  to  the  interests  which  she  possesses  in 
China,  is  interested  in  a  peculiar  degree  politically,  as 
well  as  commercially  and  industrially,  in  Korea,  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  recognise  that  it  will  be 
admissible    for   either   of  them  to  take  such  measures 


Articles  of  Treaty  251 

as  may  be  indispensable  in  order  to  safeguard  those 
interests  if  threatened  either  by  the  aggressive  action 
of  any  other  Power  or  by  disturbances  arising  in  China 
or  Korea,  and  necessitating  the  intervention  of  either 
of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  for  the  protection  of 
the  lives  and  property  of  its  subjects. 

Article    II. 

If  either  Great  Britain  or  Japan,  in  the  defence  of 
their  respective  interests  as  above  described,  should 
become  involved  in  war  with  another  Power,  the  other 
High  Contracting  Party  will  maintain  a  strict  neutrality, 
and  use  its  efforts  to  prevent  other  Powers  from  joining 
in  hostilities  against  its  ally. 

Article  III. 

If  in  the  above  event  any  other  Power  or  Powers 
should  join  in  hostilities  against  that  ally,  the  other 
High  Contracting  Party  will  come  to  its  assistance  and 
will  conduct  the  war  in  common,  and  make  peace  in 
mutual  agreement  with  it. 

Article  IV. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  that  neither 
of  them  will,  without  consulting  the  other,  enter  into 
separate  arrangements  with  another  Power  to  the  pre- 
judice of  the  interests  above  described. 

Article   V. 

Whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  either  Great  Britain  or 
Japan,  the  above-mentioned  interests  are  in  jeopardy, 
the  two  Governments  will  communicate  with  one 
another  fully  and  frankly. 


252  Appendix 

Article    VI. 

The  present  Agreement  shall  come  into  effect  imme- 
diately after  the  date  of  its  signature,  and  remain  in 
force  for  five  years  from  that  date. 

In  case  neither  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties 
should  have  notified  twelve  months  before  the  expiration 
of  the  said  five  years  the  intention  of  terminating  it, 
it  shall  remain  binding  until  the  expiration  of  one  year 
from  the  day  on  which  either  of  the  High  Contracting 
Parties  shall  have  denounced  it.  But  if,  when  the  date 
fixed  for  its  expiration  arrives,  either  ally  is  actually 
engaged  in  war,  the  alliance  shall,  ipso  facto,  continue 
until  peace  is  concluded. 

In  faith  whereof  the  Undersigned,  duly  authorised 
by  their  respective  Governments,  have  signed  this 
Agreement,  and  have  affixed  thereto  their  seals. 

Done  in  duplicate  at  London,  30th  January,  1902. 

(L.S.)  (Signed)  Lansdowne. 

His  Britannic  Majesty's  Principal  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs. 

(L.S.)  (Signed)  Hayashi. 

Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of  His 
Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan  at  the  Court  of  St.  James'. 


INDEX 


American   China  Development 
Co.,  187 

mining      concession      in 

Korea,  10 1 

railway     concessions     in 

China,  187,  192,  198 

trade  in  China,  227 

Anchiu,  117 

Anglo-Chinese     views     of    Far 

Eastern  problem,  2U 

'•Backsheesh    and    bluff"    at 

Pekin,  144 
Hardens,  Mr.,  21 
Barrow  hematite  rails,  85 
Belgian    and     French     railway 

concessions  in  China,  192 
Belgian  financiers  obtain  conces- 
sions for  Luhan  Railway,  184 
Belgians,  King  of,  interested  in 

Hankow-Canton  Railway,  188 
Best  Policy  of  Western  States, 

The,  206 
Boxer  rising,   9,    142,   153,  177, 

184,  187 
British  and  Chinese  Corporation, 

165 
British  mines  in  Korea,  102 
policy  at  Pekin,  145 


British  railway  concessions  in 
China,  192 

railway  schemes,  import- 
ance of,  201 

Brown,  Mr.  J.  McLeavy,  95 

Buddhism  in  Korea,  71 

Cailleux,  M.,  on  Luhan  Railway, 

184 
Campbell's,  Mr.  C.  W.,  report  on 

Korea,  66,  98 
Canton    and    Fatshan    Railway 

opened,  188 
Canton-Kowloon  Railway,    164, 

191 
"Cash,"  91,  no 
Changte,  185 
Chemulpo,  44,  80 
Chengting,  185,  190,  195,  197 
Chengting-Tai-Yuan       Railway, 

191 
Chen  Tu,  199 
China,  122 
Empress-Dowager  of,   130, 

217 
Chinese  characteristics,  1 54 
Director-General  of  Rail- 
ways, 183 
iron,  cheapness  of,  176 


aS3 


254 


Index 


Chinese  Maritime  Customs,  218 

railway  concessions,  192 

wages,  158,  176 

Chinghvva  coal-fields,  178 

Chinnampo,  43,  81 

Cho  Sen,  or  Korea,  51 

Chungking,  188 

Chungking  to  Shunking  Rail- 
way, 191 

Coal  and  iron  mines  in  Shansi, 
169 

Coal  Hill,  Pekin,  153 

Commercial  Powers,  combina- 
tion of,  desirable,  226 

Cotton-mills  in  Japan,  32 

Cremation  in  Japan,  20 

Curzon,  Lord,  on  Japan,  23 

Demonology  in  Korea,  73 
Diamond  Mountains,  71 
Director-General    of    Railways, 
Chinese,  183,  186 

Earthquakes  in  Japan,  21 
Eastern     mind    impressionable, 

236 
Empress-Dowager.of  China,  130, 

217 
Eun  San,  British  mines  at,  102 
Extra-territorial  jurisdiction,  23 

Far  Eastern  Sick  Man,  125,  205 

Far  Eastern  Triple  Alliance  pro- 
posed, 208,  231 

Fen  River,  186 

Foreign  Office  and  railway  con- 
cessions, 183 

Office,   reorganisation    of, 

suggested,  232 

railway    concessions     in 

China,  182 


French  railway  concessions,  191 
interests  in  China,  188 

railways,   significance    of, 

195,  198 

Fusan,  42,  80 
Fusan-Seoul  Railway,  83 

German  mines  in  Korea,  103 

policy  in  China,  226 

railway  projects  in  China, 

190,  192 

railways,   significance   of, 

193 
Glass's,  Mr.  J.  G.  H.,  mission  to 

Shansi,  170 
Goff,  Mr.,  on  Korean  currency, 

92 
Gordon,     General,     mandarin's 

opinion  of,  172 
Grand  Canal,  177 
Great     Britain,      France,     and 

America,    suggested    alliance 

between,  206 
Great  Wall  of  China,  140,  164 

Hangchau,  166 
Hankow-Canton   Railway,    187, 

191,  198 

Hart's,   Sir   Robert,   retirement, 

220 
views  on  China  crisis, 

135 
Hay,  Mr.  A.  H.,  95 
Hay's,     Mr.,     circular     to     the 

Powers,  228 
Hideyoshi's  invasion  of  Korea, 

57.76 
Hillier,  Mr.,  141 
Ho-nan,  177-180,  189 
Hubner,  Baron,  on  prestige,  237 


Index 


255 


I-CHANG,  188 

I-chang  to  Chungking  Railway 
project,  191 

Imperial  railways  of  China,  191 

Integrity  of  Chinese  Empire, 
124,  225 

"  Intelligent  anticipation  of 
events,"  147 

Iron,  Chinese  and  British,  con- 
trasted, 176 

Ito,  Marquis,  30 

Japan, i 

a     Protectionist     country, 

106,  241 

and  China,  war  between,  2 

and    Great   Britain,    treaty 

between,  226,  appendix 
Japanese  army,  15 

Parliament,  34 

Japanisation  of  China,  217,  242 
Jinrickshas,  15 

Kaifeng,  180,  198 
Kaifeng-Ho-nan    Railway,    180, 

191 
Kaifeng-Su  Railway  project,  191 
Kanghwa,  island  of,  'j'] 
Kang  Yii  Wee's  views  of  the  Far 

Eastern  question,  125 
Katsura,  Viscount,  16 
Khailar,  195 

Kiao  Chau,  138,  190,  197 
Kiao  Chau  to  Tsinan  Railway, 

191 
Kimshi,  117 

Kinder,  Mr.  Claude,  139,  163 
Kioto,  20 
Kobe,  21 
Korea,  41 


Korean  agriculture,  87 

aristocracy,  66 

characteristics,  54 

currency,  91 

hats,  61 

horses,  no 

mining,  97 

railway,  82 

women,  63 

Kowloon,  165 
Kuangtung,  188,  195 

Land  of  the  Morning  Calm,  51 
Leopold,     King,     interested    in 
Hankow-Canton  Railway,  188 
Liaotung  Peninsula,  78 
Li  Hung  Chang,  interview  with, 

131 

on  Pekin  Syndicate,  169 

Likin,  230 

Luhan  (Pekin-Hankow)  Rail- 
way, 166,  180,  183,  1 86,  190, 
194,  198 

Luzzatti,  Commendatore,  167 

Macdonald,  Sir  Claude,  142 
Mackay,  Sir  James,  230 
Manchuria,    occupation    of,    78, 

124,  222 
Masampo,  43,  81 
Meadows,  Mr.  T.  T.,  205 
Ming  Dynasty  in  Korea,  76 

emperors  of  China,  153 

Missionaries  in  Korea,  73 
Mitsu  Bishi  dockyard,  33 
Mokpo,  43,  81 
Monastic  institutions  in  Korea, 

71 
Mongolia,      projected     Russian 

railway  through,  195 


256 


Index 


Moji,  41 

Morgan,  Mr.  Pritchard,  102 

Nagasaki,  33 

Nagoya,  Chamber  of  Commerce, 

Newchwang,  Russian  occupation 

of,  12,  206,  222 
Nishi,  Baron,  19 
Nodel,  45 
Northern  Railway  of  China,  124, 

139,  162 
Nyang-pan,  the,  66 

Om,  Lady,  49 
Osaka,  31 

Palaces  at  Seoul,  48 

Panama  Canal,  political  impor- 
tance of,  228 

"  Peaceful  penetration,"  policy 
of,  10 

Peiho  River,  138 

Pekin,  139,  150 

evil  influences  of,  215 

Syndicate,  167,  190 

and       British       and 

Chinese  Corporation,  agree- 
ment between,  202 

Concession,   interpre- 


tation of,  179 

walls  of,  153 

Pekin-Hankovv  Railway,  183,  191 
Pethick,  Mr.,  131 
Ping  Hsiang,  188 
Ping  Yang,  74,  84,  ii6 
Ping  Yang  Fu,  174 
Port  Arthur,  138 
Prestige  defined,  237 
Prospect  Hill,  Pekin,  153 
Protection  in  Japan,  106 


Pukou,  180 

Pukou-Sinyang    Railway,     166, 

191 
Pukou  to   Southern   Border   of 

Shantung  Railway,  191 

Railway  concessions  in  China, 
list  of,  191 

Railways  in  China,  161 

Revanche,  Japan's,  4 

Richthofen,  Baron  von,  169 

Russia,  suggested  compromise 
with,  224 

Russian  aggression,  how  to 
meet,  206,  221 

mining  law,  104 

policy,   dual   character   of, 

223 

railway      concessions       in 

China,  192 

Russo-Chinese  Bank,  185 

Russo-French  railways,  signifi- 
cance of,  194,  198 

Russo-Japanese  War,  78, 205,  235 

Samsu,  99 

Satow,  Sir  Ernest,  28 
Satsuma  ware,  47 
Seoul,  45 

tramways,  88 

Shanghai,  198 
Shanghai-Nanking  Railway,  165, 

191 
Shanghai- Wusung  Railway,  161 
Shan-hai-Kwan,  140,  163 
Shansi,  169.  180,  197 
Shantung,  166,  197 
Shantung  Border  Railway,  180 
Shantung-Tientsin  Railway,  190, 

191 


Index 


257 


Sheng  Hung  Shuen,  183,  186 

Shensi,  176 

Shimonoseki,  41 

Shockley,  Mr.  W.  H.,  174 

Sian,  186 

Siang  Tang,  188 

Siberian  Railway,  195,  206 

Sinyang,  166 

Sinyang  to  Chentu  Railway  pro- 
ject, 191 

Siu  Fu,  1 88,  195 

Su,  180 

Suchau,  166 

Suchau  to  Hang  Chau  and 
Ningpo  Railway,  191 

Sze-chuan,  187,  188,  195,  199 

Tai  Yang,  ironworks  at,  175 

Tai  Yuan,  185,  198 

Tai  Yuan  to  Sian  Railway  pro- 
ject, 191 

Taku  forts,  138 

Taokou,  167,  177 

Taokou-Tsechau  Railway,  179, 
191 

Telegraph  system  in  Korea,  93 

Tientsin,  138,  177,  197 

Tokio,  22,  36 

electric  railway,  26 

Gas  Company,  26 

Tongking,  188,  195,  199 

Tongking  and  Yunnan  Railway, 
191 

Tong  Ko  Kai,  103 

Tongshan,  163 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain 
and  Japan,  226,  appendix 

Tsechau,  167,  174 


Tsinan,  190 

Tsinan   to  Chengting  Railway, 

191 
Tsung  Li  Yamen,  148 
Tung  Kwan,  i86 

United  States,  agreement  with, 

desirable,  227 
Un  San,  American  mines  at,  loi 

Vladivostock,  222 

Wei  Hai  Wei,  ^^ 

Wei  River,  177 

Widow's  Gap,  Great  Wall,  164 

Wiju,  81,  84 
Wuchang,  187 

cotton  mills,  1 57 

Wunsan,  80 

Yalu,  the,  78 

"Yangtse  Agreement,"  226 

Yangtse    River,    165,    1 80,    183, 

188,  203 

Valley,  199 

Yanosuke  Ivvasaki,  Baron,  27 

Yellow  Peril,  the,  240 

River,  the,   169,    185,  i86, 

190,  198 
Yen  Chau  to   Kaifeng  Railway, 

190,  191 
Yi  Yong  Ik,  49 
Yoh  Chou,  188 
Yokohama,  14 
Yongsan,  45 
Yunnan,  188,  195,  199 
Yunnan   to  Sze-chuan  Railway 

project,  191 


Printtd  and  bound  by  Haaell,  Wmlsott  &  Viney,  Ld.,  London  and  Aylesbury. 

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